Chaps. 73-78.

Chap. 73. (43.)—The Different Kinds of Wool, and Their Colours.

The most esteemed wool of all is that of Apulia, and that which in Italy is called Grecian wool, in other countries Italian. The fleeces of Miletus hold the third rank. [Here Pliny differs from Columella, who remarks, B. vii. c. 2, “Our people considered the Milesian, Calabrian, and Apulian wool as of excellent quality, and the Tarentine the best of all.”] The Apulian wool is shorter in the hair, and only owes its high character to the cloaks [“Pænula” was a check cloak, used chiefly by the Romans when travelling, instead of the toga, as a protection against the cold and rain. It was used by women as well as men. It was long, and without sleeves, and with only an opening for the head. Women were forbidden by Alexander Severus to wear it in the city. It was made particularly of the woolly substance known as gausapa.] that are made of it. That which comes from the vicinity of Tarentum and Canusium is the most celebrated; and there is a wool from Laodicea, in Asia, of a similar quality. [The wool of Laodicea is celebrated by Strabo, B. xii.—B.] There is no white wool superior to that of the countries bordering on the Padus, [Columella, B. vii. c. 2, particularly notices the excellence of the wool of Altinum, situate near the mouth of the Padus or Po. The following epigram of Martial, B. xiv. c. 155, may be presumed to convey the opinion of the respective merits of the different kinds of wool; it is entitled “Lanæ albæ:” “Velleribus primis Apulia; Parma secundis Nobilis; Altinum tertia laudat ovis.” “Apulia is famed for its fleeces of the first quality, Parma for the second, while Altinum is praised for those of the third.”—B.] nor up to the present day has any wool exceeded the price of one hundred sesterces per pound. [About twelve shillings sterling.—B.] The sheep are not shorn in all countries; in some places it is still the custom to pull off the wool. [Varro remarks, B. ii. c. 2, that the term “vellus,” obviously from “vello,” “to pluck,” proves that the wool was anciently plucked from the sheep, before shearing had been invented.—B.] There are various colours of wool; so much so, indeed, that we want terms to express them all. Several kinds, which are called native, [“Quas nativas appellant.” The term “nativa,” as applied to the wool, has been supposed to refer to those fleeces that possess a natural colour, and do not require to be dyed.—B.] are found in Spain; Pollentia, in the vicinity of the Alps, [Martial, B. xiv. Ep. 157, calls the fleeces of Pollentia “lugentes,” “mournful,” from their black colour; they are also mentioned by Columella, ubi supra, and by Silius Italicus, B. viii. l. 599.—B.] produces black fleeces of the best quality; Asia, as well as Bætica, [Martial, B. v. c. 37, describing the charms of a lady, says, “surpassing with her locks the fleece of the Bætic sheep,” no doubt referring to the colour. In another Epigram, B. xii. E. 200, he speaks of the “aurea vellera,” the “golden fleece” of Bætis.—B.] the red fleeces, which are called Erythræan; those of Canusium are of a tawny colour; [Martial has two Epigrams on the wool of Canusium, B. xiv. E. 127, and E. 129. In the former it is designated as “fusca,” tawny; in the latter, “rufa,” red.—B.] and those of Tarentum have their peculiar dark tint. [“Suæ pulliginis.”—B.] All kinds of wool, when not freed from the grease, [The term here used, “succidus,” is explained by Varro, B. ii. c. 11: “While the newly-clipped wool has the sweat in it, it is called ‘succida.’” See B. xxix. c. 9.] possess certain medicinal properties. The wool of Istria is much more like hair than wool, and is not suitable for the fabrication of stuffs that have a long nap; [“Pexis vestibus.” According to Hardouin, the “pexa vestis,” was worn by the rich, and had a long and prominent nap, in contradistinction to the smooth or worn cloths. He refers to a passage in Horace, B. i. Ep. i. l. 95, and to one in Martial, B. ii. E. 58, which appear to sanction this explanation. See Lem. vol. iii. p. 524.—B.] so too is that which Salacia, [See B. iv. c. 35.] in Lusitania, finds the most useful for making its chequered cloths. There is a similar wool, too, found about Piscenæ, [See B. iii. c. 5. Now Pezenas.] in the province of Narbonensis, as also in Egypt; a garment, when it has been worn for some time, is often embroidered with this wool, and will last for a considerable time.

The thick, flocky wool has been esteemed for the manufacture of carpets from the very earliest times; it is quite clear, from what we read in Homer, that they were in use in his time. [Καὶ ῥήγεα καλὰ Πορφύρ’ ἐμβαλέειν, στορέσαι δ’ ἐφύπερθε τάπητας. Od. B. iv. l. 427. “And to throw on fair coverlets of purple, and to lay carpets upon them.”] The Gauls embroider them in a different manner from that which is practised by the Parthians. [These were probably much like what we call “Turkey” carpets.] Wool is compressed also for making a felt, [The name given to this article, “lana coacta,” “compressed wool,” correctly designates its texture. The manufacturers of it were called “lanarii coactores,” and “lanarii coactiliarii.”] which, if soaked in vinegar, [“I have macerated unbleached flax in vinegar saturated with salt, and after compression have obtained a felt, with a power of resistance quite comparable with that of the famous armour of Conrad of Montferrat; seeing that neither the point of a sword, nor even balls discharged from fire-arms, were able to penetrate it.” Memoir on the substance called Pilina, by Papadopoulo-Vretos, on the Mem. presented to the Royal Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres, 1845, as quoted by Littré.] is capable of resisting iron even; and, what is still more, after having gone through the last process, [Pliny probably conceived that by the removal of all the grease from the wool, or the “purgamentum,” it became less combustible.—B.] wool will even resist fire; the refuse, too, when taken out of the vat of the scourer, is used for making mattresses, [“Tomentum;” an Epigram of Martial, B. xiv. E. 160, explains the meaning of this word.—B.] an invention, I fancy, of the Gauls. At all events, it is by Gallic names that we distinguish the different sort of mattresses [See B. xix. c. 2.] at the present day; but I am not well able to say at what period wool began to be employed for this purpose. Our ancestors made use of straw [Probably in the form of what we call “palliasses.”] for the purpose of sleeping upon, just as they do at present when in camp. The gausapa [The “gausapa,” or “gausapum,” was a kind of thick cloth, very woolly on one side, and used especially for covering tables, beds, and making cloaks to keep out the wet and cold. The wealthier Romans had it made of the finest wool, and mostly of a purple colour. It seems also to have been sometimes made of linen, but still with a rough surface.] has been brought into use in my father’s memory, and I myself recollect the amphimalla [From ἀμφίμαλλα, “napped on both sides.” They probably resembled our baizes or druggets, or perhaps the modern blanket.] and the long shaggy apron [Pliny again makes mention of the “ventrale,” or apron, in B. xxvii. c. 28.] being introduced; but at the present day, the laticlave tunic [He seems to allude here to the substance of which the laticlave tunic was made, and not any alteration in its cut or shape. Some further information on the laticlave or broad-striped tunic will be found in B. x. c. 63.] is beginning to be manufactured, in imitation of the gausapa. [About the time of Augustus, the Romans began to exchange the “toga,” which had previously been their ordinary garment, for the more convenient “lacerna” and “pænula,” which were less encumbered with folds, and better adapted for the usual occupations of life.—B.] Black wool will take no colour. I shall describe the mode of dyeing the other kinds of wool when speaking of the sea-purple, [See B. ix. c..] or of the nature of various plants. [See B. xxi. c. 12.]

Chap. 74.—Different Kinds of Cloths.

Varro informs us, he himself having been an eye-witness, that in the temple of Sancus, [This deity was also called Sangus, or Semo Sancus; and Ovid, Fasti, B. vi. c. 216, et seq., gives us much information concerning him. He was of Sabine origin, and identical with Hercules and Dius Fidius. If we may judge from the derivation of the name, it is not improbable that he presided over the sanctity of oaths. His temple at Rome was on the Quirinal, opposite to that of Quirinus, and near the gate which from him derived the name of “Sanqualis porta.” He was said to have been the father of the Sabine hero Sabus.] the wool was still preserved on the distaff and spindle of Tanaquil, [According to the commonly received account, Tanaquil was the wife of Tarquinius Priscus, and a native of Etruria; when she removed to Rome, and her husband became king, her name was changed to Caia Cæcilia.—B.] who was also called Caia Cæcilia; and he says that the royal waved [“Undulata;” it has been suggested that this means the same as our stuffs which we term “watered.”—B.] toga, formerly worn by Servius Tullius, and now in the temple of Fortune, was made by her. Hence was derived the custom, on the marriage of a young woman, of carrying in the procession a dressed distaff and a spindle, with the thread arranged upon it. Tanaquil was the first who wove the straight tunic, [“Tunica recta;” according to Festus, it was “so called from being woven perpendicularly by people standing.”—B. It probably means woven from top to bottom and cross-wise in straight lines.] such as our young people wear with the white toga; [“Toga pura;” so called from being white, without a mixture of any other colour.] newly-married women also. Waved garments were at first the most esteemed of all: after which those composed of various colours [“Sororiculata;” there is much uncertainty respecting the derivation of this word and its meaning, but it is generally supposed to signify some kind of stuff, composed of a mixture of different ingredients or of different colours.—B. “Orbiculata,” “with round spots,” is one reading, and probably the correct one.] came into vogue. Fenestella informs us, that togas with a smooth surface, as well as the Phryxian togas, [According to Hardouin, these were cloths which imitated the crisp and prominent hair of the Phryxian fleece, Lemaire, vol. iii. p. 529. Some editions read “Phrygianas.”] began to be used in the latter part of the reign of Augustus. Thick stuffs, in the preparation of which the poppy [“Papaverata;” there is considerable difficulty in ascertaining the meaning of this word, as applied to garments. Pliny, in two other passages, speaks of a certain species of poppy—“from this, linens receive a peculiar whiteness,” B. xix. “From this, linens receive a brilliant whiteness in time,” B. xx. c. 78. It would appear, in these cases, that the fibres of the stem of the poppy were mixed with the flax; though, perhaps, this would be scarcely practicable with wool.—B.] was used, are of more ancient date, being mentioned by the poet Lucilius, in his lines on Torquatus. The prætexta [The prætexta is described by Varro as a white toga, with a purple band; it was worn by males, until their seventeenth year, and by young women until their marriage.—B.] had its origin among the Etrurians. I find that the trabea [The trabea differed from the prætexta, in being ornamented with stripes (trabes) of purple, whence its name.—B.] was first worn by the kings; embroidered garments are mentioned by Homer, [Helen is introduced, Il. B. iii. l. 125, weaving an embroidered garment, in which were figured the battles of the Greeks and Trojans. It was probably somewhat of the nature of modern tapestry.—B.] and in this class originated the triumphal robes. [See B. ix. c..] The Phrygians first used the needle for this purpose, [This passage, in which the needle is said to have been used, proves that when the word “pictæ” is applied to garments, it is equivalent to our term “embroidered.”—B.] and hence this kind of garment obtained the name of Phrygionian. King Attalus, who also lived in Asia, invented the art of embroidering with gold, from which these garments have been called Attalic. [Pliny refers to the “Attalica tunica,” B. xxxiii. c. 29, and to the “Attalica vestis,” B. xxxvi. c. 20, and B. xxxvii. c. 6; Propertius speaks of “Attalica aulæa,” B. ii. c. 32, l. 12, “Attalicas torus,” B. ii. c. 13, l. 22, and B. iv. c. 5, l. 24, and “Attalicæ vestes,” B. iii. c. 18, l. 19.—B.] Babylon was very famous for making embroidery in different colours, and hence stuffs of this kind have obtained the name of Babylonian. [Plautus, Stich. A. ii. s. 2, l. 54, speaks of “Babylonica peristromata, consuta tapetia,” “Babylonian hangings, and embroidered tapestry;” and Martial, B. viii. Ep. 28, l. 17, 18, of “Babylonica texta,” “Babylonian textures.”—B.] The method of weaving cloth with more than two threads was invented at Alexandria; these cloths are called polymita; [From Martial’s epigram, entitled “Cubicularia polymita,” B. xiv. Ep. 150, we may conclude that the Egyptian polymita were formed in a loom, and of the nature of tapestry, while the Babylonian were embroidered with the needle. Plautus probably refers to the Egyptian tapestry, in the Pseud. A. i. s. 2, l. 14, “Neque Alexandrina belluata conchyliata tapetia”—“Nor yet the Alexandrine tapestries, figured over with beasts and shells.”] it was in Gaul that they were first divided into chequers. [“Scutulis divider.” This term may mean “squares,” “diamonds,” or “lozenges,” something like the segments into which a spider’s web is divided. It is not improbable that he alludes here to the plaids of the Gallic nations.] Metellus Scipio, in the accusation which he brought against Cato, [We have an account of this contention in Plutarch, and we may presume that this accusation was produced at that time.—B.] stated that even in his time Babylonian covers for couches were selling for eight hundred thousand sesterces, and these of late, in the time of the Emperor Nero, had risen to four millions. [The first sum amounts to about £4,600 sterling, the latter to £23,000.—B.] The prætextæ of Servius Tullius, with which the statue of Fortune, dedicated by him, was covered, [The following lines in Ovid, Fasti, B. vi. l. 569, et seq., have been supposed to refer to this temple, and prove that the account of it is correct. “Lux eadem, Fortuna, tuaque est, auctorque, locusque. “Sed superinjectis quis latet æde togis? “Servius est....” “The same day is thine, O Fortune; the same the builder, the same the site. But who is this that lies hid beneath the garments covering him? It is Servius.”] lasted until the death of Sejanus; and it is a remarkable fact, that, during a period of five hundred and sixty years, they had never become tattered, [Perhaps “changed their colour” may be a better translation of “defluxisse.”] or received injury from moths. I myself have seen the fleece upon the living animal dyed purple, scarlet, and violet,—a pound and a half [“Sesquipedalibus libris.” It seems impossible to translate this literally. Hardouin explains it by supposing that the fleeces were dyed in strips of three colours, each strip being half a foot in breadth, and that three of these required a pound of the dyeing materials.—B.] of dye being used for each,—just as though they had been produced by Nature in this form, to meet the demands of luxury.

Chap. 75.—The Different Shapes of Sheep; the Musmon.

In the sheep, it is considered a proof of its being of a very fair breed, when the legs are short, and the belly is covered with wool; when this part is bare, they used to be called apicæ, and were looked upon as worthless. [Pliny probably took this from Varro, B. ii. c. 2. This term is derived from πείκω, “to shear,” with the negative prefix.—B.] The tail of the Syrian sheep is a cubit in length, [The word “cubitales” alone is used, which might be supposed to refer only to the length of the tail; but Hardouin conceives that it must also apply to the breadth, and refers to Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 28, and others, in proof of the great size which the tails of the Syrian sheep attain, and which would not be indicated by merely saying that they are a cubit long; this being little more than the ordinary length in other countries.—B.] and it is upon that part that most of the wool is found. It is considered too early to castrate lambs before they are five months old.

(49.) There is in Spain, and more especially in Corsica, a peculiar kind of animal called the musmon, [According to Hardouin, this term, or some word nearly resembling it, was applied to mules or mongrels, as well as to individual animals of diminutive size or less perfect form.—B. Called “moufflon” by the French.] not very unlike a sheep, but with a fleece which more resembles the hair of the goat than the wool of the sheep. The ancients gave the name of umbri [The term “umbri” appears to have been applied to a mongrel or less perfect animal; like “musmon,” it is of uncertain derivation.—B.] to the breed between this animal and the sheep. The head of the sheep is the weakest part of all, on which account it is obliged, when it feeds, to turn away from the sun. [So also Varro, ubi supra, and Columella, B. vii. c..—B. See also B. xviii. c. 76.] The animals which are covered with wool are the most stupid of all. [This remark, and the others in the remainder of this Chapter, appear to be taken from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 3.—B.] When they are afraid to enter any place, if one is only dragged into it by the horns, all the rest will follow. The longest duration of their life is ten years; but in Æthiopia it is thirteen. Goats live in that country eleven years, but in other parts of the world mostly eight years only. Both of these animals require to be covered not more than four times to ensure conception.

Chap. 76. (50.)—Goats and Their Propagation.

The goat occasionally brings forth as many as four at a birth; but this is rarely the case. [We have an account of the generation of the goat in Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 19. Ælian, Anim. Nat. B. iii. c. 38, says that the goats of Egypt sometimes produce five young ones at a birth.—B.] It is pregnant five months, like the sheep. Goats become barren when very fat. There is little advantage to be derived from their bringing forth before their third year, or after the fourth, when they begin to grow old. [Columella, B. vii. c. 6, gives a somewhat different account; he says, “Before its sixth year it is old—so that when five years old, it is not suitable for coupling.”—B.] They are capable of generating in the seventh month, and while they are still sucking. In both sexes those that have no horns are considered the most valuable. [According to Columella, ubi supra, “Because those with horns are usually troublesome, from their uncertainty of temper.”—B.] A single coupling in the day is not sufficient; the second and the following ones are more effectual. They conceive in the month of November, so as to bring forth in the month of March, when the buds are bursting; this is sometimes the case with them when only one year old, and always with those of the second year; but the produce of those which are three years old is the most valuable. [There has been considerable difference of opinion respecting the reading of the original, whether the word “utiles,” or “inutiles,” was the one here employed. Hardouin conceives it was the latter, and endeavours to reconcile the sense with this reading; Lemaire, vol. iii. pp. 538, 539. But, notwithstanding his high authority, there is still great doubt on the matter.—B.] They continue to bring forth for a period of eight years. Cold produces abortion. When their eyes are surcharged, the female discharges the blood from the eye by pricking it with the point of a bulrush, and the male with the thorn of a bramble.

Mutianus relates an instance of the intelligence of this animal, of which he himself was an eye-witness. Two goats, coming from opposite directions, met on a very narrow bridge, which would not admit of either of them turning round, and in consequence of its great length, they could not safely go backwards, there being no sure footing on account of its narrowness, while at the same time an impetuous torrent was rapidly rushing beneath; accordingly, one of the animals lay down flat, while the other walked over it.

Among the males, those are the most esteemed which have flat noses and long hanging ears, [“Infractis,” probably in contradistinction to erect ears. Columella, ubi supra, terms them, “flaccidis et prægrandibus auribus”—“flaccid ears, and very large.”—B.] the shoulders being covered with very thick shaggy hair; the mark of the most valuable among the females is the having two folds [“Laciniæ;” Varro, B. ii. c. 3, describes them as “mammulas pensiles;” Columella, ubi supra, calls them “verruculas;” he, however, assigns this appendage to the male goat.—B.] hanging down the body from under the neck. Some of these animals have no horns; but where there are horns, the age of the animal is denoted by the number of knots on them. Those that have no horns give the most milk. [The word “mutilus” is employed, which Hardouin interprets, “having had the horns removed.” But the same word is applied by Columella, B. vii. c. 6, to an animal naturally without horns.—B.] According to Archelaus, [On this reference to Archelaus, Dalechamps remarks that he is incorrect; but refers to Varro, ubi supra, who ascribes this opinion to Archelaus; Lemaire. vol. iii. p. 540.—B.] they breathe, not through the nose, but the ears, [Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. i. c. 9, refers to this opinion, as being erroneous; Ælian. Hist. Anim. B. i. c. 53, supposes that they breathe both through the nose and the ears.—B.] and they are never entirely free from fever, [Varro, ubi supra, remarks, “that no one in his senses speaks of a goat in health; for they are never without fever.”] from which circumstance it is, probably, that they are more animated than sheep, more ardent, and have stronger sexual passions. It is said also, that they have the power of seeing by night as well as in the day, for which reason those persons who are called Nyctalopes, [Meaning those who cannot see at night, who have a weak sight, and therefore require a strong light to distinguish objects. See also, as to the Nyctalopes, B. xxviii. c. 47. The same remedy, the liver of the goat, is recommended for its cure.—B. See also B. xxviii. c. 11.] recover the power of seeing in the evening, by eating the liver of the he-goat. In Cilicia, and in the vicinity of the Syrtes, the inhabitants shear the goat for the purpose of clothing themselves. [Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. viii. c. 28, says that the inhabitants of Cilicia shear the goats in the same manner as the sheep.—B.] It is said that the she-goats in the pastures will never look at each other at sun-set, but lie with their backs towards one another, [This is mentioned by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 3.—B.] while at other times of the day they lie facing each other and in family groups. They all have long hair hanging down from the chin, which is called by us aruncus. [Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 3, refers to the beard of the goat, under the name of ἤρυγγον.] If any one of the flock is taken hold of and dragged by this hair, all the rest gaze on in stupid astonishment; and the same happens when any one of them has eaten of a certain herb. [According to Hardouin, the herb referred to is the “eryngium;” probably the “eringo:” he cites various authorities in support of his opinion.—B.] Their bite is very destructive to trees, and they make the olive barren by licking it; [This is repeated in B. xvii. c. 24.—B.] for which reason they are not sacrificed to Minerva. [Varro, B. i. c. 2, says: “Hence it is that they sacrificed no goats to Minerva, on account of the olive;” he then explains why the circumstance of the goat injuring the olive-tree was a reason for not offering it in sacrifice to Minerva, the patroness of this tree. Ovid, on the other hand, in the Fasti, B. i. l. 360, says that the goat was sacrificed to Bacchus, because it gnawed the vine.]

Chap. 77. (51.)—The Hog.

The period for coupling the hog lasts from the return of the west wind to the vernal equinox; the proper age commences in the eighth month, indeed, in some places, in the fourth even, and continues until the eighth year. [Varro, B. ii. c. 4, and Columella, B. vii. c. 9. fix upon the seventh year.—B.] They bring forth twice in the year, the time of gestation being four months; the number at a birth amounts to twenty even, but they cannot rear so large a number. [Varro, and Columella, ubi supra, recommend that the sow should not be allowed to rear more than eight young ones at each birth.—B.] Nigidius informs us, that those which are produced within ten days of the winter solstice are born with teeth. One coupling is sufficient, but it is repeated, on account of their extreme liability to abortion; the remedy for which is not to allow coupling the first time the female is in heat, nor until its ears are flaccid and pendant. The males do not generate after they are three years old. When the females become feeble from old age, they receive the males lying down. [Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. v. c. 13.—B.] It is not looked upon as anything portentous when they eat their young. The young of the hog is considered in a state of purity for sacrifice when five days old, [Varro, ubi supra, says on the tenth day; Hardouin endeavours to prove that the number in Varro was originally five.—B.] the lamb on the seventh day, and the calf on the thirtieth. Coruncanius asserts, that ruminant animals are not proper for victims until they have two teeth. [The term “bidens,” employed by Pliny, although it literally means “having two teeth,” has been referred to the age of the animal, as indicated rather by the respective size of the teeth than by their number. It has been supposed to designate an animal of two years old, when the canine teeth of the lower jaw had become prominent.—B.] It has been supposed, that when a pig has lost one eye, it will not live long; [This is also referred to by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. vi. c. 18, but is without foundation.—B.] otherwise, these animals generally live up to fifteen, or sometimes twenty years. They sometimes become mad; besides which, they are liable to other diseases, especially to quinsy [Aristotle, ubi supra, B. viii. c. 26. It is mentioned as a frequent occurrence by Plautus, Trinum. A. ii. s. 4, l. 139.—B.] and to scrofula. [Columella, B. vii. c. 10, gives directions for the treatment of hogs affected with scrofula. The name of the disease has been supposed to be derived from the frequency of its occurrence in this animal, anciently called “scrofa.”] It is an indication that the hog is diseased, when blood is found at the root of a bristle pulled from its back, and when it holds its head on one side while walking. When the female becomes too fat, she has a deficiency of milk; the first litter is always the least numerous. Animals of this kind delight in rolling in the mud. [It may appear unnecessary to refer to authorities on this subject, which is a matter of daily observation; it has, however, been stated by some naturalists, that the hog, in its wild state, does not exhibit any of the filthy propensities so generally observed in it when domesticated.—B.] The tail is curled, and it has also been remarked, that those are a more acceptable offering to the gods, whose tail is turned to the right than those which have it turned to the left. They may be fattened in sixty days, and more especially if they have been kept without food for three days before fattening. The swine is by far the most brutish of all the animals, and it has been said, and not unaptly, that life has been given them in place of salt. [This saying is found in Varro, B. ii. c. 4; it is referred to by Cicero, De Nat. Deor. B. ii. c. 64, and ascribed to Chrysippus; “ne putisceret, animam ipsam pro sale datam.”—B. “That they are only of use for their flesh, which is kept from putridity by their life, which acts as salt.”] And yet it has been known, that these animals, when carried away by thieves, have recognized the voice of their keeper; and when a vessel has been under water through the inclination of one of its sides, they have had the sense to go over to the other side. The leader of the herd will even learn to go to market, and to different houses in the city. In the wild state also, they have the sense to pass their urine in plashy places, that they may destroy all traces of them, and so lighten themselves for flight. [Pliny speaks of this more at large in B. xxviii. c. 60.—B.] The female is spayed, just as is done with the camel; after they have fasted two days, they are suspended by the hind feet, and the orifice of the womb is cut; after this operation, they fatten more quickly. [This operation, and the effect of it, are mentioned by Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. ix. c. 79, and by Columella, B. vii. c. 9.—B.]

M. Apicius [There were three Romans of this name, celebrated for their skill in gastronomy; of these the most illustrious lived in the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. A treatise (probably spurious) is extant, to which his name is attached, entitled “De Arte Culinariâ”—“On the Art of Cookery.” Pliny refers to him again, B. xix. c. 41, and he is mentioned by many others of the classical writers.—B.] made the discovery, that we may employ the same artificial method of increasing the size of the liver of the sow, as of that of the goose; [See B. x. c.. A much more cruel mode of increasing the liver of this animal, by confining it in hot ovens, is practised at the present day, to satisfy the palate of the admirers of the Strasburg patés de foies gras.] it consists in cramming them with dried figs, and when they are fat enough, they are drenched with wine mixed with honey, and immediately killed. There is no animal that affords a greater variety to the palate of the epicure; all the others have their own peculiar flavour, but the flesh of the hog has nearly fifty different flavours. Hence it is, that there are whole pages of regulations made by the censors, forbidding the serving up at banquets of the belly, the kernels, [Pliny, in B. ix. c. 66, employs the expression “tonsillæ in homine, in sue glandulæ,” as if he considered them analogous parts.—B. See Plautus passim.] the testicles, the womb, and the cheeks. However, notwithstanding all this, the poet Publius, [Publius Syrus was a comic performer and a writer, who acquired considerable celebrity; he lived during the reign of Augustus.—B.] the author of the Mimes, when he ceased to be a slave, is said to have given no entertainment without serving up the belly of a sow, to which he also gave the name of “sumen.”

Chap. 78.—The Wild Boar; Who Was the First to Establish Parks for Wild Animals.

The flesh of the wild boar is also much esteemed. Cato, the Censor, in his orations, strongly declaimed against the use of the brawn of the wild boar. [“Aprugnum callum;” Plautus, in detailing the preparations for a feast, enumerates the following articles, “pernam, callum, glandium, sumen;” Pseudolus, A. i. s. 2, l. 32; all of which are parts of the hog.] The animal used to be divided into three portions, the middle part of which was laid by, [“Ponebatur.” Littré and Ajasson render this, “placed at table.” It would appear, however, that the meaning is that this part was put by for salting, and the other parts were served at table while fresh.] and is called boar’s chine. P. Servilius Rullus was the first Roman who served up a whole boar at a banquet; the father of that Rullus, who, in the consulship of Cicero, proposed the Agrarian law. So recent is the introduction of a thing which is now in daily use. The Annalists have taken notice of such a fact as this, clearly as a hint to us to mend our manners; seeing that now-a-days two or three boars are consumed, not at one entertainment, but as forming the first course only.

(52.) Fulvius Lupinus was the first Roman who formed parks [“Vivaria;” Varro, B. iii. c. 12, and Aulus Gellius, B. ii. c. 20, give an account of the different places which were employed by the Romans for preserving animals of various descriptions, with their appropriate designations. Varro names the inventor Fulvius Lippinus.—B.] for the reception of these and other wild animals: he first fed them in the territory of Tarquinii: it was not long, however, that imitators were found in L. Lucullus and Q. Hortensius. [Varro, B. iii. c. 13, gives an animated description of a visit to what he calls the leporarium of Hortensius, where, besides hares, as the name implies, there was a multitude of stags, boars, and other four-footed animals.] The wild sow brings forth once only in the year. The males are very fierce during the rutting time; they fight with each other, having first hardened their sides by rubbing them against the trees, and covered themselves with mud. The females, as is the case with animals of every kind, become more fierce just after they have brought forth. The wild boar is not capable of generating before the first year. The wild boar of India [Ælian, De Anim. Nat. B. xvi. c. 37, says, that no boar, either wild or tame, is produced in India, and that the Indians never use the flesh of this animal, as they would regard the use of it with as much horror as of human flesh.—B. The “Sus babiroussa” is probably meant by Pliny.] has two curved teeth, projecting from beneath the muzzle, a cubit in length; and the same number projecting from the forehead, like the horns of the young bull. The hair of these animals, in a wild state, is the colour of copper, the others are black. No species whatever of the swine is found in Arabia.