Chaps. 39-44.

Chap. 39.—Lesbos.

But Lesbos [Now Mitylene, or Metelin.], distant from Chios sixty-five miles, is the most celebrated of them all. It was formerly called Himerte, Lasia, Pelasgia, Ægira, Æthiope, and Macaria, and is famous for its nine cities. Of these, however, that of Pyrrha has been swallowed up by the sea, Arisbe [We find it also stated by Herodotus, that this island was destroyed by the Methymnæans. The cities of Mitylene, Methymna, Eresus, Pyrrha, Antissa, and Arisbe, originally formed the Æolian Hexapolis, or Confederation of Six Cities.] has perished by an earthquake, and Methymna is now united to Antissa [The ruins found by Pococke at Calas Limneonas, north-east of Cape Sigri, may be those of Antissa. This place was the birth-place of Terpander, the inventor of the seven-stringed lyre.]; these lie in the vicinity of nine cities of Asia, along a coast of thirty-seven miles. The towns of Agamede and Hiera have also perished. Eresos [Or Eressus, according to Strabo. It stood on a hill, reaching down to the sea. Its ruins are said to be near a place still called Eresso. It was the birth-place of the philosopher Theophrastus, the disciple of Aristotle.], Pyrrha, and the free city of Mitylene [Still called Mitylene, or Metelin.], still survive, the last of which was a powerful city for a space of 1500 years. The circumference of the whole island is, according to Isidorus, 168 miles [Strabo makes it about only 137 miles.], but the older writers say 195. Its mountains are, Lepethymnus, Ordymnus, Macistus, Creon, and Olympus. It is distant seven miles and a half from the nearest point of the mainland. The islands in its vicinity are, Sandaleon, and the five called Leucæ [Or the White Islands.]; Cydonea [So called from its fruitfulness in quinces, or “ Mala Cydonia.”], which is one of them, contains a warm spring. The Arginussæ [These were three small islands, near the mainland of Æolis. It was off these islands that the ten generals of the Athenians gained a victory over the Spartans, B.C. 406. The modern name of these islands is said to be Janot.] are four miles distant from Æge [One of the Leucæ, previously mentioned.]; after them come Phellusa [So called from the φελλὸς, or “cork,” which it produced.] and Pedna. Beyond the Hellespont, and opposite the shore of Sigeum, lies Tenedos [Still known as Tenedos, near the mouth of the Hellespont. Here the Greeks were said to have concealed their fleet, to induce the Trojans to think that they had departed, and then introduce the wooden horse within their walls.], also known by the names of Leucophrys [“Having white eye-brows;” probably from the whiteness of its cliffs.], Phœnice, and Lyrnesos. It is distant from Lesbos fifty-six miles, and twelve and a half from Sigeum.

Chap. 40. (32.)—The Hellespont and Mysia.

The tide of the Hellespont now begins to run with greater violence, and the sea beats against the shore, undermining with its eddies the barriers that stand in its way, until it has succeeded in separating Asia from Europe. At this spot is the promontory which we have already mentioned as Trapeza [In C. of the present Book.]; ten miles distant from which is the city of Abydos [Opposite to Sestos, made famous by the loves of Hero and Leander. Aidos, or Avido, a village on the Hellespont, is thought to occupy its site.], where the straits are only seven stadia wide; then the town of Percote [Now called Bergase, according to D’Anville.]; Lampsacus [Its ruins are still known as Lapsaki. This important city was celebrated for its wine, and was the chief seat of the worship of the god Priapus.], at first called Pityusa; the colony of Parium [Its site is now called Camanar, according to D’Anville.], which Homer calls by the name of Adrastia; the town of Priapos [According to Ansart, the modern Caraboa marks its site.]; the river Æsepus [Now called the Satal-dere, according to Ansart.]; Zelia [Its locality was not far from the modern Biga, according to Ansart.]; and then the Propontis [Now the Sea of Marmora.], that being the name given to the tract of sea where it enlarges. We then come to the river Granicus [Mentioned in C. of the present Book.], and the harbour of Artace [Now called Artaki, or Erdek, a town of Mysia, and a Milesian colony. A poor town now occupies its site.], where a town formerly stood. Beyond this is an island which Alexander joined to the continent, and upon which is Cyzicus [Its ruins are called by the Turks Bal Kiz, probably meaning “Old Cyzicus.” There are many subterraneous passages, and the ruins are of considerable extent. Its temples and storehouses appear to have been built on a scale of great magnificence. See Pliny, B. xxxvi. c. 15.], a city of the Milesians, which was formerly called Arctonnesos [The “Island of the Bears,” which animals frequented the mountain in its vicinity.], Dolionis, and Dindymis; above it are the heights of Mount Dindymus [Called Dindymum by Herodotus; probably the modern Morad Dagh, in which the river Hermus rises.]. We then come to the towns of Placia, Ariace [Now called Saki, according to Ansart.], and Scylace; in the rear of which places is Mount Olympus, known as the “Mysian Olympus,” and the city of Olympena. There are also the rivers Horisius [Now called the Lartacho, according to Ansart.] and Rhyndacus [Previously mentioned in C. of the present Book.], formerly called the Lycus; this last river rises in Lake Artynias, near Miletopolis, and receives the Macestos, and many other streams, dividing in its course Asia [In its limited sense; considered as a portion only of Asia Minor.] from Bithynia [On the west it bordered on Mysia, and on the south on Phrygia and Galatia, while the eastern boundary seems to have been less definite.].

This country was at first called by the name of Cronia, after that, Thessalis, and then Malianda and Strymonis. The people of it are by Homer called Halizones [Ephorus, as quoted by Stephanus Byzantinus, says, that the Halizones inhabited the district lying between Caria, Mysia, and Lydia. Hesychius incorrectly places them in Paphlagonia.], from the fact that it was a nation begirt by the sea. There was formerly a vast city here, Attussa by name; at present there are twelve cities in existence; among which is Gordiucome [Meaning the “Village of Gordius,” one of its ancient kings. It was also called Gordium. After falling to decay, it was rebuilt by Augustus, and called Juliopolis. It is celebrated in history as the place where Alexander the Great cut the Gordian knot; the scene of the adventure being the Acropolis of the town, the former palace of King Gordius.], otherwise Juliopolis; and, on the coast, Dascylos [There were several Asiatic cities of the similar name of Dascylium. The site of the one here mentioned does not appear to have been ascertained.]. We then come to the river Gelbes [More generally read “Gebes.”]; and, in the interior, the town of Helgas, or Germanicopolis, which has also the other name of Booscœte [The “Bull’s Bed,” or “Den.” It probably took its second name from the Roman general Germanicus.]; Apamea [Now called Medania, or Mutania. It received its name of Apamea from Prusias, king of Bithynia, in compliment to his wife. In the time of the first Cæsars, it was made a Roman colony.], now more generally known as Myrlea of the Colophonians: the river Etheleus also, the ancient boundary of Troas, and the commencement of Mysia. Next to this comes the gulf [The Bay of Cios. The river runs into a lake, formerly known as Lake Ascanius; probably that mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxi. c. 10.] into which the river Ascanius flows, the town of Bryllion [Stephanus Byzantinus says that it was the same as the town of Cios, or Cius, here mentioned as near to it. It was on the shores of the Propontis.], and the rivers Hylas and Cios, with a town of the same name as the last-mentioned river; it was founded by the Milesians at a place which was called Ascania of Phrygia, as an entrepôt for the trade of the Phrygians who dwelt in the vicinity. We may therefore look upon this as a not ineligible opportunity for making further mention of Phrygia.

Chap. 41.—Phrygia.

Phrygia lies above Troas, and the peoples already mentioned as extending from the Promontory of Lectum [Cape Baba, or Santa Maria; the south-western promontory of the Troad.] to the river Etheleus. On its northern side it borders upon Galatia, on the south it joins Lycaonia, Pisidia, and Mygdonia, and, on the east, it touches upon Cappadocia. The more celebrated towns there, besides those already mentioned, are Ancyra [In Phrygia Epictetus, or “Conquered Phrygia,” so called from its conquest by certain of the kings of Bithynia. Strabo calls this place a “small city, or hill-fortress, towards Lydia.” It was probably situate near the source of the Macestus, now the Susugherli Su, or the Simaul Su, as it is called in its upper course.], Andria, Celænæ [The place from which the citizens were removed to Apamea, as mentioned in C. of the present Book. Hamilton (Researches, &c., p. 499) supposes its acropolis to have been situate about half a mile from the sources of the river Marsyas.], Colossæ [First mentioned by Herodotus, and situate on the Lycus, a branch of the Mæander. It had greatly declined in Strabo’s time, and in the middle ages there rose near it a town of the name of Chonæ, and Colossæ disappeared. Hamilton found extensive ruins of an ancient city about three miles north of the modern Khonos. It was one of the early Christian churches of Asia, and the Apostle Paul addressed one of his Epistles to the people of this place. It does not appear from it that he had ever visited the place; indeed, from Chap. ii. 1 we may conclude that he had not.], Carina [This does not appear to be the same as the Carine mentioned in C. of this Book, as having gone to decay. Its site is unknown.], Cotyaion [Or Cotiæum, or Cotyæum. It was on the Roman road from Dorylæum to Philadelphia, and in Phrygia Epictetus, according to Strabo. The modern Kutahiyah is supposed to denote its site; but there are no remains of antiquity.], Ceraine, Conium, and Midaium. There are authors who say that the Mœsi, the Brygi, and the Thyni crossed over from Europe, and that from them are descended the peoples called the Mysi, Phryges, and Bithyni.

Chap. 42.—Galatia and the Adjoining Nations.

On this occasion also it seems that we ought to speak of Galatia [It was bounded on the west, south, and south-east by those countries; and on the north-east, north, and north-west by Pontus, Paphlagonia, and Bithynia.], which lies above Phrygia, and includes the greater part of the territory taken from that province, as also its former capital, Gordium [Mentioned in C., under the name of Gordiucome.]. The Gauls [Who invaded and settled in Asia Minor, at various periods during the third century B.C.] who have settled in these parts, are called the Tolistobogi, the Voturi, and the Ambitouti; those who dwell in Mæonia and Paphlagonia are called the Trocmi. Cappadocia stretches along to the north-east of Galatia, its most fertile parts being possessed by the Tectosages and the Teutobodiaci. These are the nations by which those parts are occupied; and they are divided into peoples and tetrarchies, 195 in number. Its towns are, among the Tectosages, Ancyra [Near a small stream, which seems to enter the Sangarius. It originally belonged to Phrygia, and its mythical founder was Midas, the son of Gordius, who was said to have found an anchor on the spot, and accordingly given the name to the town; which story would, however, as it has been observed, imply that the name for anchor (ἄγκυρα) was the same in the Greek and the Phrygian languages. The Tectosages, who settled here about B.C. 277, are supposed to have been from the neighbourhood of Toulouse. It is now called Angora, or Engareh; and the fine hair of the Angora goat may have formed one of the staple commodities of the place, which had a very considerable trade. The chief monument of antiquity here is the marble temple of the Emperor Augustus, built in his honour during his lifetime. In the inside is the Latin inscription known as the monumentum, or marmor Ancyranum, containing a record of the memorable actions of Augustus. The ruins here are otherwise interesting in a high degree.]; among the Trocmi, Tavium [Now Tchoroum, according to Ansart.]; and, among the Tolistobogi, Pessinus [Its ruins are called Bala-Hisar, in the south-west of Galatia, on the southern slope of Mount Didymus. This place was celebrated as a chief seat of the worship of the goddess Cybele, under the surname of Agdistis, whose temple, filled with riches, stood on a hill outside of the city.]. Besides the above, the best known among the peoples of this region are the Actalenses, the Arasenses, the Comenses [Hardouin suggests that these are the Chomenses, the people of the city of Choma, in the interior of Lycia, mentioned in C. of the present Book.], the Didienses, the Hierorenses, the Lystreni [The people of Lystra, a city of Lycaonia, on the confines of Isauria, celebrated as one of the chief scenes of the preaching of Paul and Barnabas. See Acts xiv.], the Neapolitani, the Œandenses, the Seleucenses [The people of Seleucia, in Pisidia.], the Sebasteni [The people of Sebaste, a town of the Tectosages.], the Timoniacenses [The people of Timonium, a town of Paphlagonia, according to Stephanus Byzantinus.], and the Thebaseni [Thebasa, a town of Lycaonia, has been mentioned in C. of the present Book.]. Galatia also touches upon Carbalia in Pamphylia, and the Milyæ [See C. of the present Book.], about Baris; also upon Cyllanticum and Oroandicum [The town of Oroanda, giving name to this district, is mentioned at the end of C. of the present Book.], a district of Pisidia, and Obizene, a part of Lycaonia. Besides those already mentioned [The Caÿster, the Rhyndacus, and the Cios.], its rivers are the Sangarius [Now called the Sakariyeh, the largest river of Asia Minor after the ancient Halys.] and the Gallus [Now called the Lefke, which discharges itself into the Tangarius, or Sakariyeh.], from which last the priests [Called “Galli.” They were said to become mad from drinking of the waters of this river, and to mutilate themselves when in a frantic state. See Ovid’s Fasti, B. iv. l. 364 et seq.] of the Mother of the gods have taken their name.

Chap. 43.—Bithynia.

And now as to the remaining places on this coast. On the road from Cios into the interior is Prusa [Now called Brusa. It stood on the north side of Mount Olympus, fifteen Roman miles from Cius. According to most accounts, it was built by Prusias, king of Bithynia. It is most probable that Hannibal superintended the works, while staying as a refugee at the court of Prusias.], in Bithynia, founded by Hannibal at the foot of Olympus, at a distance of twenty-five miles from Nicæa, Lake Ascanius [Now Lake Iznik.] lying between them. We then come to Nicæa [Its ruins are to be seen at Iznik, on the east side of the lake of that name. Its site is supposed to have been originally occupied by the town of Attæa, and afterwards by a settlement of the Bottiæans, called Ancore, or Helicore, which was destroyed by the Mysians. On this spot, shortly after the death of Alexander the Great, Antigonus built a city which he named after himself, Antigonæa; but Lysimachus soon afterwards changed the name into Nicæa, in honour of his wife. Under the kings of Bithynia, it was often the royal residence, and it long disputed with Nicomedia the rank of capital of Bithynia. The modern Iznik is only a poor village, with about 100 houses. Considerable ruins of the ancient city are still in existence. Littré seems to think that there are two Nicæas meant in these passages; but it would seem that the same place is alluded to in both lines. The only thing that seems to give countenance to Littré’s supposition (in which he is supported by Hardouin) is, the expression “Et Prusa item altera.”], formerly called Olbia, and situate at the bottom of the Ascanian Gulf; as also a second place called Prusa [It has been suggested, that this is only another name for the town of Cios, previously mentioned; but it is most probable that they were distinct places, and that this was originally called Cierus, and belonged to the territory of Heraclea, but was conquered by King Prusias, who named it after himself. It stood to the north-west of the other Prusa.], at the foot of Mount Hypius. Pythopolis, Parthenopolis, and Coryphanta are no longer in existence. Along the coast we find the rivers Æsius, Bryazon, Plataneus, Areus, Æsyros, Geodos, also called Chrysorroas [Or the “Golden Stream.”], and the promontory [Suggested by Parisot to be the modern Cape Fagma.] upon which once stood the town of Megarice. The gulf that here runs inland received the name of Craspedites from the circumstance of that town lying, as it were, upon its skirt [From the Greek κράσπεδον, a “skirt.”]. Astacum [Or Astacus, a colony originally from Megara and Athens. From Scylax it would appear that this city was also called Olbia. Its site is placed by some of the modern geographers at a spot called Ovaschik, and also Bashkele.], also, formerly stood here, from which the same gulf has received the name of the ‘Astacenian’: the town of Libyssa [Called Gebiseh, according to Busbequis,—at least in his day. The modern Hereket, on the coast, has been suggested.] formerly stood at the spot where we now see nothing but the tomb of Hannibal. At the bottom of the gulf lies Nicomedia [Its ruins now bear the name of Izmid, or Iznikmid, at the north-eastern corner of the Sinus Astacenus, or Gulf of Izmid. It was the chief residence of the kings of Bithynia, and one of the most splendid cities in the world. Under the Romans it was made a colony, and was a favourite residence of Diocletian and Constantine the Great. Arrian the historian was born here.], a famous city of Bithynia; then comes the Promontory of Leucatas [Now Akrita. It is also called Akritas by Ptolemy.], by which the Astacenian Gulf is bounded, and thirty-seven miles distant from Nicomedia; and then, the land again approaching the other side, the straits [The Straits, or Channel of Constantinople.] which extend as far as the Thracian Bosporus. Upon these are situate Chalcedon [Its site is supposed to have been about two miles south of the modern Scutari, and it is said that the modern Greeks call it Chalkedon, and the Turks Kadi-Kioi. Its destruction was completed by the Turks, who used its materials for the construction of the mosques and other buildings of Constantinople.], a free town, sixty-two miles from Nicomedia, formerly called Procerastis [So called, Hardouin thinks, from its being opposite to the Golden Horn, or promontory on which Byzantium was built.], then Colpusa, and after that the “City of the Blind,” from the circumstance that its founders did not know where to build their city, Byzantium being only seven stadia distant, a site which is preferable in every respect.

In the interior of Bithynia are the colony of Apamea [Or Myrlea, mentioned above in C. 40. See p..], the Agrippenses, the Juliopolitæ, and Bithynion [Or Bithynium, lying above Tius. Its vicinity was a good feeding country for cattle, and noted for the excellence of its cheese, as mentioned by Pliny, B. xi. c. 42. Antinoüs, the favourite of the Emperor Adrian, was born here, as Pausanias informs us. Its site does not appear to be known.]; the rivers Syrium, Laphias, Pharnacias, Alces, Serinis, Lilæus, Scopius, and Hieras [These rivers do not appear to have been identified by the modern geographers.], which separates Bithynia from Galatia. Beyond Chalcedon formerly stood Chrysopolis [The modern Scutari occupies its site. Dionysius of Byzantium states, that it was called Chrysopolis, either because the Persians made it the place of deposit for the gold which they levied from the cities, or else from Chryses, a son of Agamemnon and Chryseis.], and then Nicopolis, of which the gulf, upon which stands the Port of Amycus [A king of the Bebrycians. For some further particulars relative to this place, see B. xvi. c. 89 of the present Book.], still retains the name; then the Promontory of Naulochum, and Estiæ [Situate on a promontory, which is represented by the modern Algiro, according to Hardouin and Parisot.], a temple of Neptune [Other writers say that it was erected in honour of the Twelve Greater Divinities.]. We then come to the Bosporus, which again separates Asia from Europe, the distance across being half a mile; it is distant twelve miles and a half from Chalcedon. The first entrance of this strait is eight miles and three-quarters wide, at the place where the town of Spiropolis [Called Phinopolis in most of the editions. It is very doubtful whether this passage ought not to be translated, “At a distance thence of eight miles and three-quarters is the first entrance to this strait, at the spot,” &c. We have, however, adopted the rendering of Holland, Ajasson, and Littré.] formerly stood. The Thyni occupy the whole of the coast, the Bithyni the interior. This is the termination of Asia, and of the 282 peoples, that are to be found between the Gulf of Lycia [Mentioned in C. of the present Book.] and this spot. We have already [In B. iv. c..] mentioned the length of the Hellespont and Propontis to the Thracian Bosporus as being 239 miles; from Chalcedon to Sigeum, Isidorus makes the distance 322 1 / 2.

Chap. 44.—The Islands of the Propontis.

The islands of the Propontis are, before Cyzicus, Elaphonnesus [Or “Deer Island.”], from whence comes the Cyzican marble; it is also known by the names of Neuris and Proconnesus. Next come Ophiussa [Now Afzia, according to D’Anville.], Acanthus, Phœbe, Scopelos, Porphyrione, Halone [There is still an island in the Sea of Marmora known by the name Alon, which is separated from the north-western extremity of the Peninsula of Cyzicus by a narrow channel.], with a city of that name, Delphacia, Polydora, and Artaceon, with its city. There is also, opposite to Nicomedia, Demonnesos [Hesychius says, that there were two islands near Byzantium called by the common name of Demonnesi, but severally having the names of Chalcitis and Pityusa. Pliny, on the other hand, places Demonnesus opposite to Nicomedia, and at the same time mentions Chalcitis and Pityodes (probably the same as Pityusa) as distinct places. D’Anville calls Demonnesus “The Isle of Princes.”]; and, beyond Heraclea, and opposite to Bithynia, the island of Thynias, by the barbarians called Bithynia; the island of Antiochia: and, at the mouth of the Rhyndacus, Besbicos [The position assigned to this island by Pliny and Strabo corresponds with that of Kalolimno, a small island ten miles north of the mouth of the Rhyndacus.], eighteen miles in circumference; the islands also of Elæa, the two called Rhodussæ, and those of Erebinthus [Now called Prota, according to Parisot.], Megale, Chalcitis [So called from its copper-mines; now called Khalki, or Karki.], and Pityodes [Now called Prinkipo, east of Khalki.].

Summary. —Towns and nations spoken of ****. Noted rivers ****. Famous mountains ****. Islands, 118 in number. People or towns no longer in existence ****. Remarkable events, narratives, and observations ****.

Roman Authors quoted. —Agrippa [See end of], Suetonius Paulinus [A celebrated Roman general, who was successively governor of Numidia and Britain, where he defeated Queen Boadicea. He was a supporter of the Emperor Otho, but afterwards obtained a pardon from Vitellius on the plea that he had betrayed Otho at the battle of Bedriacum, and so contributed to his defeat; which, however, was not the case.], M. Varro [See end of], Varro Atacinus [See end of], Cornelius Nepos [See end of], Hyginus [See end of], L. Vetus [See end of], Mela [See end of], Domitius Corbulo [Brother of Cæsonia, the wife of Caligula, and father of Domitia Longina, the wife of Domitian. He was the greatest general of his day, and conquered Tiridates, the powerful king of Parthia. He slew himself at Cenchreæ, A.D. 67, upon hearing that Nero had given orders for his execution.], Licinius Mucianus [See end of], Claudius Cæsar [The Roman emperor, grandson of Livia, the wife of Augustus. As an author, the character in which he is here referred to, he occupied himself chiefly with history, and was encouraged in the pursuit by Livy the historian. At an early age he began to write a history from the death of the Dictator Cæsar, a plan which he afterwards abandoned, and began his work with the restoration of peace, after the battle of Actium. Of the earlier period he had written only four books, but the latter work he extended to forty-four. He also wrote memoirs of his own life, which Suetonius describes as written with more silliness than inelegance. A fourth work was a defence of Cicero against the attacks of Asinius Pollio. He also wrote histories of Carthage and of Etruria in Greek. All of his literary works have perished.], Arruntius [See end of], Livius the Son [Nothing whatever is known of this son of T. Livius, the great Roman historian. It is not improbable that the transcribers have committed an error in inserting the word filio, and that the historian himself is the person meant.], Sebosus [See end of], the Register of the Triumphs [“Acta Triumphorum” probably mean the registers kept in the Capitol, in which were inscribed the names of those who were honoured with triumphs, and the decrees of the senate or the people in their favour. This register must not be confounded with the “Tabulæ Consulares.”].

Foreign Authors quoted. —King Juba [Juba II., king of Mauritania. After the defeat of his father at Thapsus, he was carried a prisoner to Rome, though quite a child, and compelled to grace the conqueror’s triumph. Augustus Cæsar afterwards restored to him his kingdom, and gave him in marriage Cleopatra, or Selene, the daughter of Antony and Cleopatra. To his literary pursuits he is chiefly indebted for his reputation. His works are continually quoted by Pliny, who regards his authority with the utmost deference. Among his numerous works he seems to have written a History of Africa, Assyria, Arabia, and Rome; as also Treatises on the Stage, Music, Grammar, and Painting.], Hecatæus [Of Miletus. See end of], Hellanicus [See end of], Damastes [See end of], Dicæarchus [See end of], Bæton [He was employed by Alexander the Great in measuring distances in his marches. He wrote a work upon this subject, entitled, “Distances of the Marches of Alexander.”], Timosthenes [See end of], Philonides [See end of], Zenagoras [See end of], Astynomus [See end of], Staphylus [See end of], Aristoteles [See end of], Aristocritus [See end of], Dionysius [Of Chalcis. See end of], Ephorus [See end of], Eratosthenes [See end of], Hipparchus [See end of], Panætius [Of Rhodes, the friend of P. Scipio Æmilianus and Lælius. He was the head of the Stoic School at Athens, where he died. His principal work was a Treatise on Moral Duties, which served as a model for Cicero in the composition of his work, “De Officiis.” He also wrote a work on the philosophical sects.], Serapion [See end of] of Antioch, Callimachus [See end of], Agathocles [See end of], Polybius [See end of], Timæus [See end of] the mathematician, Herodotus [See end of], Myrsilus [See end of], Alexander Polyhistor [See end of], Metrodorus [See end of], Posidonius [See end of], who wrote the Periplus and the Periegesis, Sotades [There are four literary persons mentioned of this name. 1. An Athenian comic poet of the middle comedy. 2. A native of Maronæa, in Thrace, or else of Crete, who wrote lascivious and abusive verses, and was at last put to death by order of Ptolemy Philadelphus. He was the inventor of the Sotadean verse, or Ionic a Majore, Tetrameter Brachycatalectic. 3. An Athenian philosopher, who wrote a book on mysteries. 4. A Byzantine philosopher, of whom nothing whatever is known.], Periander [There were two writers of this name, before the time of Pliny. 1. Periander of Corinth, one of the Seven Wise Men, who wrote a didactic poem, containing moral and political precepts, in 2000 lines; and, 2. a physician and bad poet, contemporary with Archidamas, the son of Agesilaüs. It is uncertain to which Pliny here refers.], Aristarchus [Probably a writer on geography. Nothing appears to be known of him.] of Sicyon, Eudoxus [Of Cyzicus, See end of; of Cnidos, See end of], Antigenes [A Greek historian, who appears, from Plutarch, to have written a history of the expeditions of Alexander the Great.], Callicrates [See end of], Xenophon [See end of] of Lampsacus, Diodorus [See end of] of Syracuse, Hanno [The author of the Periplus, or voyage which he performed round a part of Libya, of which we have a Greek translation from the Punic original. His age is not known, but Pliny states (B. ii. c., and B. v. c.) that the voyage was undertaken in the most flourishing days of Carthage. It has been considered on the whole, that he may be probably identified with Hanno, the son or the father of Hamilcar, who was slain at Himera, B.C. 480.], Himilco [Mentioned also by Pliny, B. ii. c., as having conducted a voyage of discovery from Gades towards the north, along the western shores of Europe, at the same time that Hanno proceeded on his voyage along the western coast of Africa. He is repeatedly quoted by Festus Avienus, in his geographical poem called Ora Maritima. His voyage is said to have lasted four months, but it is impossible to judge how far it extended.], Nymphodorus [See end of], Calliphanes [See end of], Artemidorus [See end of], Megasthenes [A Greek geographer, and friend of Seleucus Nicator, by whom he was sent on an embassy to Sandrocottus, king of the Prasii, whoso capital was Palibothra, a town probably in the vicinity of the present Patna. Whether he had accompanied Alexander on his invasion of India is quite uncertain. He wrote a work on India in four books, to which the subsequent Greek writers were chiefly indebted for their accounts of India. Arrian speaks highly of him as a writer, but Strabo impeaches his veracity; and we find Pliny hinting the same in B. vi. c. 21. Of his work only a few fragments survive.], Isidorus [See end of], Cleobulus [See end of], and Aristocreon [There was a philosopher of this name, a nephew of Chrysippus, and his pupil; but it is not known whether he is the person referred to, in C., either as having written a work on universal geography, or on that of Egypt.].

END OF VOL. I.