Chaps. 34-37.

Chap. 34. (20.)—Nearer Spain, Its Coast Along the Gallic Ocean.

At the Promontory of the Pyrenees Spain begins, more narrow, not only than Gaul, but even than itself [He means to say that it gradually increases in breadth after leaving the narrow neck of the Pyrenees and approaching the confines of Lusitania.] in its other parts, as we have previously mentioned [B. iii. c..], seeing to what an immense extent it is here hemmed in by the ocean on the one side, and by the Iberian Sea on the other. A chain of the Pyrenees, extending from due east to south-west [From Ruscino to Gades.], divides Spain into two parts, the smaller one to the north, the larger to the south. The first coast that presents itself is that of the Nearer Spain, otherwise called Tarraconensis. On leaving the Pyrenees and proceeding along the coast, we meet with the forest ranges of the Vascones [In the province now known as Guipuzcoa.], Olarso [Supposed to be the present Cabo de la Higuera.], the towns of the Varduli [Probably inhabiting the eastern part of the provinces of Biscay and Alava, the eastern portion of Navarre, and, perhaps, a part of the province of Guipuzcoa.], the Morosgi [According to Hardouin the modern San Sebastian occupies the site of their town.], Menosca [On the same site as the modern Bermeo, according to Mannert. Hardouin thinks, however, and with greater probability, that it was situate at the mouth of the river Orio.], Vesperies [D’Anville considers this to be the site of the city of Bermeo.], and the Port of Amanus [Poinsinet thinks that this is Flavio in Bilbao, D’Anville calls it Portugalette, and Mannert thinks that it is the same as Santander, with which opinion Ansart agrees.], where now stands the colony of Flaviobriga. We then come to the district of the nine states of the Cantabri [According to Ptolemy, the Cantabri possessed the western part of the province of La Montana, and the northern parts of the provinces of Palencia and Toro.], the river Sauga [Most probably the present Rio de Suancès, by Mannert called the Saya, into which the Besanga flows. Hardouin however calls it the Nervio.], and the Port of Victoria of the Juliobrigenses [Ansart suggests that this is the modern San Vicente de la Barquera. If the river Sauga is the same with the Suancès, this cannot be the port of Santander, as has been suggested.], from which place the sources of the Iberus [Or Ebro.] are distant forty miles. We next come to the Port of Blendium [According to Ansart, this is either the modern Ensenada de Ballota or else the Puerta de Pô.], the Orgenomesci [According to Ansart, the Orgenomesci occupied the same territory which Ptolemy has assigned to the Cantabri in general. See Note above.], a people of the Cantabri, Vereasueca [Hardouin takes this to be Villaviciosa. Ansart thinks that Ria de Cella occupies its site.] their port, the country of the Astures [They are supposed to have occupied the greater part of the principality of the Asturias and the province of Leon.], the town of Noega [Hardouin and Mannert consider this to be identical with Navia or Nava, six miles to the east of Oviedo, an obscure place in the interior. Ansart however would identify it with Villaviciosa.], and on a peninsula [No doubt the headland now known as the Cabo de Penas.], the Pæsici. Next to these we have, belonging to the jurisdiction of Lucus [Now Lugo in Gallicia.], after passing the river Navilubio [Supposed by Ansart to be the Rio Caneiro, into which the Rio Labio discharges itself.], the Cibarci [Supposed by Ansart to have dwelt in the vicinity of the Celtic promontory, now Cabo de Finisterra or Cape Finisterre. Of the Egovarri and Iadoni nothing whatever is known.], the Egovarri, surnamed Namarini, the Iadoni, the Arrotrebæ [Their towns are mentioned by Ptolemy as being situate on a bay near Nerium or the promontory of Cape Finisterre.], the Celtic Promontory, the rivers Florius [Mannert thinks that the Nelo is the same as the Rio Allones; the Florius seems not to have been identified.] and Nelo, the Celtici [The inhabitants of Cape Finisterre.], surnamed Neri, and above them the Tamarici [Dwelling on the banks of the river which from them takes its modern name of Tambre.], in whose peninsula [Mannert and Ansart are of opinion that this peninsula was probably the modern Cabo Taurinan or Cabo Villano, most probably the latter.] are the three altars called Sestianæ, and dedicated [On the occasion probably of his expedition against the Cantabri.] to Augustus; the Capori [Their towns, Iria Flavia and Lacus Augusti, lay in the interior, on the sites of the present Santiago de Compostella and Lugo.], the town of Noela [Probably the modern Noya.], the Celtici surnamed Præsamarci, and the Cileni [They are supposed to have occupied the district in which the warm springs are found, which are known as Caldas de Contis and Caldas de Rey.]: of the islands, those worthy of mention are Corticata [It is suggested by Ansart that the islands here meant are those called Carreira, at the mouth of the river Ulla, and the Islas de Ons, at the mouth of the Tenario.] and Aunios. After passing the Cileni, belonging to the jurisdiction of the Bracari [See B. iii. c..], we have the Heleni [Inhabiting the vicinity of the modern Pontevedra.], the Gravii [According to Ptolemy also their town was Tudæ, the modern Tuy.], and the fortress of Tyde, all of them deriving their origin from the Greeks. Also, the islands called Cicæ [The modern Islas de Seyas or of Bayona.], the famous city of Abobrica [The town of Bayona, about six leagues from the mouth of the river Minho.], the river Minius [The Minho.], four miles wide at its mouth, the Leuni, the Seurbi [They occupied the tract of country lying between the rivers, and known as Entre Douro y Minho.], and Augusta [Now Braga on the Cavado.], a town of the Bracari, above whom lies Gallæcia. We then come to the river Limia [The Lima.], and the river Durius [The river Douro.], one of the largest in Spain, and which rises in the district of the Pelendones [See B. iii. c..], passes near Numantia, and through the Arevaci and the Vaccæi, dividing the Vettones from Asturia, the Gallæci from Lusitania, and separating the Turduli from the Bracari. The whole of the region here mentioned from the Pyrenees is full of mines of gold, silver, iron, and lead, both black and white [Both lead, properly so called, and tin.].

Chap. 35. (21.)—Lusitania.

After passing the Durius, Lusitania [In a great degree corresponding with modern Portugal, except that the latter includes the tract of country between the Minho and Douro.] begins. We here have the ancient Turduli [To distinguish them from the nation of the same name sprung from them, and occupying the Farther Spain. (B. iii. c..) The Pæsuri occupied the site of the present towns of Lamego and Arouca.], the Pæsuri, the river Vaga [The modern Vouga, which runs below the town of Aveiro, raised from the ruins of ancient Talabrica.], the town of Talabrica, the town and river [Agueda, which, according to Hardouin, is the name of both the river and the town.] of Æminium, the towns of Conimbrica [Coimbra, formerly Condeja la Veja.], Collippo [Leiria is supposed to occupy its site.], and Eburobritium [According to Hardouin, the modern Ebora de Alcobaza, ten leagues from Leiria.]. A promontory [The modern Cabo de la Roca, seven leagues from Lisbon.] then advances into the sea in shape of a large horn; by some it has been called Artabrum [Pliny, in C., places the Arrotrebæ, belonging to the Conventus of Lucus Augusti, about the Promontorium Celticum, which, if not the same as the Nerium (or Cape Finisterre) of the others, is evidently in its immediate neighbourhood; but he confuses the whole matter by a very curious error. He mentions a promontory called Artabrum as the headland at the N.W. extremity of Spain; the coast on the one side of it looking to the north and the Gallic Ocean, on the other to the west and the Atlantic Ocean. But he considers this promontory to be the west headland of the estuary of the Tagus, and adds, that some called it Magnum Promontorium, or the “Great Promontory,” and others Olisiponense, from the city of Olisipo, or Lisbon. He assigns, in fact, all the west coast of Spain, down to the mouth of the Tagus, to the north coast, and, instead of being led to detect his error by the resemblance of name between his Artabrum Promontorium and his Arrotrebæ (the Artabri of his predecessors, Strabo and Mela), he perversely finds fault with those who had placed above the promontory Artabrum, a people of the same name who never were there.], by others the Great Promontory, while many call it the Promontory of Olisipo, from the city [On the site of which the present city of Lisbon stands.] near it. This spot forms a dividing line in the land, the sea, and the heavens. Here ends one side [See note in the preceding page.] of Spain; and, when we have doubled the promontory, the front of Spain begins. (22.) On one side of it lie the North and the Gallic Ocean, on the other the West and the Atlantic. The length of this promontory has been estimated by some persons at sixty miles, by others at ninety. A considerable number of writers estimate the distance from this spot to the Pyrenees at 1250 miles; and, committing a manifest error, place here the nation of the Artabri, a nation that never [See note.] was here. For, making a slight change in the name, they have placed at this spot the Arrotrebæ, whom we have previously spoken of as dwelling in front of the Celtic Promontory.

Mistakes have also been made as to the more celebrated rivers. From the Minius, which we have previously mentioned, according to Varro, the river Æminius [See note in the preceding page.] is distant 200 miles, which others [Among these is Pomponius Mela, who confounds the river Limia, mentioned in the last chapter, with the Æminius, or Agueda.] suppose to be situate elsewhere, and called Limæa. By the ancients it was called the “River of Oblivion,” and it has been made the subject of many fabulous stories. At a distance of 200 miles from the Durius is the Tagus, the Munda [Now the river Mondego.] lying between them. The Tagus is famous for its golden sands [See B. xxxiii. c. 21.]. At a distance of 160 miles from it is the Sacred Promontory [Now Cape St. Vincent.], projecting from nearly the very middle of the front [Pliny continues his error here, in taking part of the western side of Spain for the north, and part of the southern coast for the western.] of Spain. From this spot to the middle of the Pyrenees, Varro says, is a distance of 1400 miles; while to the Anas, by which we have mentioned [B. iii. c..] Lusitania as being separated from Bætica, is 126 miles, it being 102 more to Gades.

The peoples are the Celtici, the Turduli, and, about the Tagus, the Vettones [With the Vettones, situate in the province of the Alentejo. See B. iii. c..]. From the river Anas to the Sacred Promontory [In the present province of Algarve.] are the Lusitani. The cities worthy of mention on the coast, beginning from the Tagus, are that of Olisipo [Now Lisbon. Both Strabo, Solinus, and Martianus Capella make mention of a story that Ulysses came to Spain and founded this city.], famous for its mares, which conceive [See B. viii. c. 67 of the present work.] from the west wind; Salacia [According to Hardouin, followed by D’Anville and Uckert, this place gives name to Alcazar do Sal, nearly midway between Evora and the sea-shore. Mannert says Setuval, which D’Anville however supposes to be the ancient Cetobriga.], which is surnamed the Imperial City; Merobrica [On its site stands Santiago de Cacem, nearly midway between Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent.]; and then the Sacred Promontory, with the other known by the name of Cuneus [Or the “Wedge,” generally supposed to be Cabo de Santa Maria. Ansart however thinks that it is the Punta de Sagres, near Cape St. Vincent. Pliny’s words indeed seem to imply a closer proximity than that of Capes St. Vincent and Santa Maria.], and the towns of Ossonoba [According to Hardouin, the modern Estombar; according to D’Anville, in the vicinity of Faro; but ten leagues from that place, according to Mannert.], Balsa [Hardouin and D’Anville are of opinion that Tavira occupies its site.], and Myrtili [Now Mertola, on the river Guadiana.].

The whole of this province is divided into three jurisdictions, those of Emerita, Pax, and Scalabis. It contains in all forty-six peoples, among whom there are five colonies, one municipal town of Roman citizens, three with the ancient Latin rights, and thirty-six that are tributaries. The colonies are those of Augusta Emerita [Now Merida, on the Guadiana. A colony of veterans (Emeriti) was planted there by Augustus.], situate on the river Anas, Metallinum [Now Medellin, in the province of Estremadura.], Pax [Pax Julia, or Pax Augusta, in the country of the Turduli, or Turdetani; now Beja, in the province of the Alentejo.], and Norba [Now Alcantara, in the province of Estremadura.], surnamed Cæsariana. To this last place of jurisdiction the people of Castra Servilia [Now Truxillo, so called from Turris Julia.] and Castra Cæcilia [Now Caceres.] resort. The fifth jurisdiction is that of Scalabis [Now called Santarem, from Saint Irene, the Virgin.], which also has the name of Præsidium Julium [“The Garrison of Julius.”]. Olisipo, surnamed Felicitas Julia [“The Success of Julius.”], is a municipal city, whose inhabitants enjoy the rights of Roman citizens. The towns in the enjoyment of the ancient Latin rights are Ebora [Evora, between the Guadiana and the Tagus.], which also has the name of Liberalitas Julia [“The Liberality of Julius.”], and Myrtili and Salacia, which we have previously mentioned. Those among the tributaries whom it may not be amiss to mention, in addition to those already [B. iii. c..] alluded to among the names of those in Bætica, are the Augustobrigenses [Hardouin takes Augustobriga to have stood on the site of Villar del Pedroso on the Tagus. Other writers think that it is represented by the present Ponte del Arcobispo.], the Ammienses [From Ammia, now Portalegre, on the frontier of Portugal. The sites of Arabrica and Balsa do not appear to have been ascertained.], the Aranditani, the Arabricenses, the Balsenses, the Cæsarobricenses, the Caperenses [Capera stood on the site now called Las Ventas de Capara, between Alcantara and Coria. The site of Cæsarobrica has not been ascertained.], the Caurenses [Coria, in Estremadura, probably occupies the site of Caura.], the Colarni, the Cibilitani, the Concordienses [Hardouin suggests that the modern Tomar occupies the site of Concordia.], the Elbocorii, the Interannienses, the Lancienses [Mannert is of opinion that the city of Lancia was situate in the north of Lusitania, on the river Durius, or Douro, near the modern Zamora.], the Mirobrigenses, surnamed [To distinguish them from the Mirobrigenses, surnamed Turduli, mentioned in B. iii. c.. Some writers think that this Mirobriga is the present Ciudad Rodrigo; but Ambrose Morales takes it to be the place called Malabriga, in the vicinity of that city.] Celtici, the Medubrigenses [The name of Medubriga was afterwards Aramenha, of which Hardouin says the ruins only were to be seen. They were probably called Plumbarii, from lead mines in their vicinity.], surnamed Plumbarii, the Ocelenses [According to Hardouin, Ocelum was in the vicinity of the modern Capara.] or Lancienses, the Turduli, also called Barduli, and the Tapori. Agrippa states, that Lusitania, with Asturia and Gallæcia, is 540 miles in length, and 536 in breadth. The provinces of Spain, measured from the two extreme [From Cape de Creuz to the Promontory between the cities of Fontarabia and Saint Sebastian.] promontories of the Pyrenees, along the sea-line of the entire coast, are thought to be 3922 miles in circumference; while some writers make them to be but 2600.

Chap. 36.—The Islands in the Atlantic Ocean.

Opposite to Celtiberia are a number of islands, by the Greeks called Cassiterides [From the Greek κασσίτερος, “tin.” It is generally supposed that the “Tin Islands” were the Scilly Isles, in the vicinity of Cornwall. At the same time the Greek and Roman geographers, borrowing their knowledge from the accounts probably of the Phœnician merchants, seem to have had a very indistinct notion of their precise locality, and to have thought them to be nearer to Spain than to Britain. Thus we find Strabo, in B. iii., saying, that “the Cassiterides are ten in number, lying near each other in the ocean, towards the north from the haven of the Artabri.” From a comparison of the accounts, it would almost appear that the ancient geographers confused the Scilly Islands with the Azores, as those, who enter into any detail, attribute to the Cassiterides the characteristics almost as much of the Azores and the sea in their vicinity, as of the Scilly Islands.], in consequence of their abounding in tin: and, facing the Promontory [Cape Finisterre.] of the Arrotrebæ, are the six Islands of the Gods, which some persons have called the Fortunate Islands [Or the “Islands of the Blest.” We cannot do better than quote a portion of the article on this subject in Dr. Smith’s “Dictionary of Ancient Geography.” “‘Fortunatæ Insulæ’ is one of those geographical names whose origin is lost in mythic darkness, but which afterwards came to have a specific application, so closely resembling the old mythical notion, as to make it almost impossible to doubt that that notion was based, in part at least, on some vague knowledge of the regions afterwards discovered. The earliest Greek poetry places the abode of the happy departed spirits far beyond the entrance of the Mediterranean, at the extremity of the earth, and upon the shores of the river Oceanus, or in islands in its midst; and Homer’s poetical description of the place may be applied almost word for word to those islands in the Atlantic, off the west coast of Africa, to which the name was given in the historical period. (Od. iv. l. 563, seq.) ‘There the life of mortals is most easy; there is no snow, nor winter, nor much rain, but Ocean is ever sending up the shrill breathing breezes of Zephyrus to refresh men.’ Their delicious climate, and their supposed identity of situation, marked out the Canary Islands, the Madeira group, and the Azores, as worthy to represent the Islands of the Blest. In the more specific sense, however, the name was applied to the two former groups; while, in its widest application, it may have even included the Cape de Verde Islands, its extension being in fact adapted to that of maritime discovery.” Pliny gives a further description of them in B. vi. c. 37.]. At the very commencement of Bætica, and twenty-five miles from the mouth of the Straits of Gades, is the island of Gadis, twelve miles long and three broad, as Polybius states in his writings. At its nearest part, it is less than 700 feet [The strait between the island and the mainland is now called the River of Saint Peter. The circuit of the island, as stated by Pliny, varies in the MSS. from fifteen to twenty-five miles, and this last is probably correct.] distant from the mainland, while in the remaining portion it is distant more than seven miles. Its circuit is fifteen miles, and it has on it a city which enjoys the rights of Roman citizens [Julius Cæsar, on his visit to the city of Gades, during the Civil War in Spain, B.C. 49, conferred the citizenship of Rome on all the citizens of Gades. Under Augustus it became a municipium, with the title of ‘Augusta urbs Julia Gaditana.’ The modern city of Cadiz is built upon its site.], and whose people are called the Augustani of the city of Julia Gaditana. On the side which looks towards Spain, at about 100 paces distance, is another long island, three miles wide, on which the original city of Gades stood. By Ephorus and Philistides it is called Erythia, by Timæus and Silenus Aphrodisias [Or the Island of Venus.], and by the natives the Isle of Juno. Timæus says, that the larger island used to be called Cotinusa [From the Greek word κότινος, “an olive-tree.”], from its olives; the Romans call it Tartessos [If Gades was not the same as Tartessus (probably the Tarshish of Scripture), its exact locality is a question in dispute. Most ancient writers place it at the mouth of the river Bætis, while others identify it, and perhaps with more probability, with the city of Carteia, on Mount Calpe, the Rock of Gibraltar. The whole country west of Gibraltar was called Tartessis. See B. iii. c..]; the Carthaginians Gadir [Or more properly ‘Agadir,’ or ‘Hagadir.’ It probably received this name, meaning a ‘hedge,’ or ‘bulwark,’ from the fact of its being the chief Phœnician colony outside of the Pillars of Hercules.], that word in the Punic language signifying a hedge. It was called Erythia because the Tyrians, the original ancestors of the Carthaginians, were said to have come from the Erythræan, or Red Sea. In this island Geryon is by some thought to have dwelt, whose herds were carried off by Hercules. Other persons again think, that his island is another one, opposite to Lusitania, and that it was there formerly called by that name [Of Erythræa, or Erytheia. The monster Geryon, or Geryones, fabled to have had three bodies, lived in the fabulous Island of Erytheia, or the “Red Isle,” so called because it lay under the rays of the setting sun in the west. It was originally said to be situate off the coast of Epirus, but was afterwards identified either with Gades or the Balearic islands, and was at all times believed to be in the distant west. Geryon was said to have been the son of Chrysaor, the wealthy king of Iberia.].

Chap. 37. (23.)—The General Measurement of Europe.

Having thus made the circuit of Europe, we must now give the complete measurement of it, in order that those who wish to be acquainted with this subject may not feel themselves at a loss. Artemidorus and Isidorus have given its length, from the Tanais to Gades, as 8214 miles. Polybius in his writings has stated the breadth of Europe, in a line from Italy to the ocean, to be 1150 miles. But, even in his day, its magnitude was but little known. The distance of Italy, as we have previously [Alluding to B. iii. c.. From Rhegium to the Alps. But there the reading is 1020.] stated, as for as the Alps, is 1120 miles, from which, through Lugdunum to the British port of the Morini [Meaning Gessoriacum, the present Boulogne. He probably calls it Britannicum, from the circumstance that the Romans usually embarked there for the purpose of crossing over to Britain.], the direction which Polybius seems to follow, is 1168 miles. But the better ascertained, though greater length, is that taken from the Alps through the Camp of the Legions [The present Santen in the Duchy of Cleves.] in Germany, in a north-westerly direction, to the mouth of the Rhine, being 1543 miles. We shall now have to speak of Africa and Asia.

Summary. —Towns and nations mentioned * * * *. Noted rivers * * * *. Famous mountains * * * *. Islands * * * *. People or towns no longer in existence * * * *. Remarkable events, narratives, and observations * * * *.

Roman Authors quoted. —Cato the Censor [See end of], M. Varro [See end of], M. Agrippa [See end of], the late Emperor Augustus [See end of], Varro Atacinus [See end of], Cornelius Nepos [See end of], Hyginus [See end of], L. Vetus [See end of], Mela Pomponius [See end of], Licinius Mucianus [See end of], Fabricius Tuscus [See end of], Ateius Capito [See end of], Ateius the Philologist [Ateius, surnamed Prætextatus, and also Philologus, which last name he assumed to indicate his learning, was born at Athens, and was one of the most celebrated grammarians of Rome, in the latter part of the first century B.C. He was originally a freedman of the jurist Ateius Capito, by whom he was described as “a rhetorician among grammarians, and a grammarian among rhetoricians.” He was on terms of intimacy with Sallust the historian, and Asinius Pollio. It is supposed that he assisted Sallust in the compilation of his history; but to what extent is not known. But few of his numerous commentaries were extant even in the time of Suetonius.].

Foreign Authors quoted. —Polybius [A native of Megalopolis in Arcadia, born about B.C. 204. He was trained probably in political knowledge and the military art under Philopœmen, and was sent, as a prisoner to Rome, with others, to answer the charge of not aiding the Romans in their war against Perseus. Here, by great good fortune, he secured the friendship of Scipio Africanus, with whom he was present at the destruction of Carthage. His history is one of the most valuable works that has come down to us from antiquity.], Hecatæus [Of Miletus, one of the earliest and most distinguished Greek historians and geographers. He lived about the 65th Olympiad, or B.C. 520. A few fragments, quoted, are all that are left of his historical and geographical works. There is little doubt that Herodotus extensively availed himself of this writer’s works, though it is equally untrue that he has transcribed whole passages from him, as Porphyrius has ventured to assert.], Hellanicus [Of Mitylene, supposed to have flourished about B.C. 450. He appears to have written numerous geographical and historical works, which, with the exception of a considerable number of fragments, are lost.], Damastes [Of Sigæum, a Greek historian, contemporary with Herodotus. He wrote a history of Greece, and several other works, all of which, with a few unimportant exceptions, are lost.], Eudoxus [See end of], Dicæarchus [See end of], Timosthenes [A Rhodian by birth. He was admiral of the fleet of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who reigned from B.C. 285 to 247. He wrote a work “On Harbours,” in ten books, which was copied by Eratosthenes, and is frequently quoted by ancient writers. Strabo also says that he composed poetry.], Eratosthenes [See end of], Ephorus [Of Cumæ, or Cymæ, in Ionia. He flourished about B.C. 408. He studied under Isocrates, and gained considerable fame as a historian. Though anxious to disclose the truth, he has been accused of sometimes forcing his authorities to suit his own views. Of his history of Greece, and his essays on various subjects, a few fragments only survive.], Crates the Grammarian [A grammarian of Mallus, in Cilicia. He lived in the time of Ptolemy Philopater, and resided at Pergamus, under the patronage of Eumenes II. and Attalus II. In his grammatical system he made a strong distinction between criticism and grammar, the latter of which sciences he regarded as quite subordinate to the former. Of his learned commentaries on the Iliad and the Odyssey, only a few fragments have come down to us.], Serapion [See end of] of Antioch, Callimachus [Of Cyrene, an Alexandrian grammarian and poet. He flourished at Alexandria, whither Ptolemy Philadelphus had invited him to a place in the Museum. Of his Hymns and Epigrams many are still extant. His Elegies, which were of considerable poetical merit, with the exception of a few fragments, have all perished. Of his numerous other works in prose, not one is extant in an entire state.], Artemidorus [See end of], Apollodorus [Probably Apollodorus of Artemita, in Mesopotamia. It is probably to him that a Treatise on Islands and Cities has been ascribed by Tzetzes, as also a History of the Parthians, and a History of Pontus.], Agathocles [Probably the author of that name, who wrote the History of Cyzicus, is the person here referred to. He is called by Athenæus both a Babylonian and a Cyzican. His work is entirely lost; but it appears to have been extensively read, and is referred to by Cicero and other ancient writers.], Eumachus [Of Neapolis. He wrote a History of Hannibal, and to him has been ascribed a Description of the Universe, of which a fragment still survives.], Timæus the Sicilian [Of Tauromenium, in Sicily; a celebrated historian, who flourished about the year B.C. 300. He was banished from Sicily by Agathocles, and passed his exile at Athens. He composed a History of Sicily, from the earliest times to the year B.C. 264. The value of his history has been gravely attacked by Polybius; but there is little doubt that it possessed very considerable merit. Of this, and other works of Timæus, only a few fragments survive.], Myrsilus [A Greek historian; a native of Lesbos. When he lived is unknown. Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, has borrowed from him a portion of his account of the Pelasgians. He is said to have been the author of the notion that the Tyrrhenians, in consequence of their wanderings after they left their original settlement, got the name of πελαργοὶ, or “storks.” He is supposed to have written a History of Lesbos, as also a work called “Historical Paradoxes.”], Alexander Polyhistor [See end of], Thucydides [See end of], Dosiades [Of this author nothing whatever seems to be known.], Anaximander [Of Miletus, born B.C. 610. One of the earliest philosophers of the Ionian school, and said to be a pupil of Thales. Unless Pherecydes of Scyros be an exception, he was the first author of a philosophical treatise in Greek prose. Other writings are ascribed to him by Suidas; but, no doubt, on insufficient grounds. Of his treatise, which seems to have contained summary statements of his opinions, no remains exist.], Philistides Mallotes [Of this writer nothing whatever is known, beyond the fact that, from his name, he seems to have been a native of Mallus, in Cilicia.], Dionysius [It seems impossible to say which, out of the vast number of the authors who bore this name, is the one here referred to. It is not improbable that Dionysius of Chalcis, a Greek historian who lived before the Christian era, is meant. He wrote a work on the Foundation of Towns, in five books, which is frequently referred to by the ancients. It is not probable that the author of the Periegesis, or “Description of the World,” is referred to, as that book bears internal marks of having been compiled in the third or fourth century of the Christian era.], Aristides [Of Miletus. He was the author of the “Milesiaca,” a romance of licentious character, which was translated into Latin by L. Cornelius Sisenna. He is looked upon as the inventor of the Greek romance, and the title of his work is supposed to have given rise to the term Milesian, as applied to works of fiction.], Callidemus [A Greek author, of whom nothing is known, except that Pliny, and after him Solinus, refer to him as the authority for the statement that Eubœa was originally called Chalcis, from the fact of (χαλκὸς) copper being first discovered there.], Menæchmus [Probably Menæchmus of Sicyon, who wrote a book on Actors, a History of Alexander the Great, and a book on Sicyon. Suidas says that he flourished in the time of the successors of Alexander.], Aglaosthenes [When he flourished is unknown. He is said by Hyginus to have written a History of the Island of Naxos.], Anticlides [He lived after the time of Alexander the Great; but his age is unknown. He wrote a book, περὶ νόστων, on the returns of the Greeks from their various expeditions, an account of Delos, a History of Alexander the Great, and other works, all of which have perished.], Heraclides [Of Heraclæa, in Pontus. He was a pupil of Plato, and, after him, of Aristotle. His works upon philosophy, history, mathematics, and other subjects, were very numerous; but, unfortunately, they are nearly all of them lost. He wrote a Treatise upon Islands, and another upon the Origin of Cities.], Philemon [A geographical writer, of whom nothing further is known.], Xenophon [The Greek historian, the disciple of Socrates, deservedly styled the “Attic Bee.” His principal works are the Anabasis, or the History of the Expedition of the younger Cyrus and the Retreat of the Ten Thousand; the Hellenica, or History of Greece, from the time when that of Thucydides ends to the battle of Mantinea, B.C. 362; and the Cyropædia, or Education of Cyrus. The greater portion of his works is now lost.], Pytheas [See end of], Isidorus [See end of], Philonides [There were two physicians of this name, one of Catana, in Sicily, the other of Dyrrhachium, in Illyricum, who, like his namesake, was the author of numerous works. It is doubtful, however, whether Pliny here refers to either of those authors.], Xenagoras [A Greek historian, quoted by Dionysius of Halicarnassus. If the same person as the father of the historian Nymphis, he must have lived in the early part of the second century B.C. He wrote a work on Islands, and another entitled Χρόνοι, or Chronicles.], Astynomus [A Greek geographer, who seems to have written an account of Cyprus.], Staphylus [He is quoted by Strabo, Athenæus, and the Scholiasts; but all that is known of him is, that he wrote a work on Thessaly, Æolia, Attica, and Arcadia.], Aristocritus [He wrote a work relative to Miletus; but nothing further is known of him.], Metrodorus [See end of], Cleobulus [Probably a writer on geography, of whom no particulars are known.], Posidonius [See end of].