Chaps. 18-20.

Chap. 18. (11.)—Thrace; the Ægean Sea.

Thrace now follows, divided into fifty strategies [Or præfectures, as the Romans called them.], and to be reckoned among the most powerful nations of Europe. Among its peoples whom we ought not to omit to name are the Denseletæ and the Medi, dwelling upon the right bank of the Strymon, and joining up to the Bisaltæ above [In the last.] mentioned; on the left there are the Digerri and a number of tribes of the Bessi [An extensive tribe occupying the country about the rivers Axius, Strymon, and Nestus or Mestus.], with various names, as far as the river Mestus [This river is now called the Mesto or Kara-Sou.], which winds around the foot of Mount Pangæum [A range between the Strymon and the Nestus, now the Pangea or Despoto-Dagh.], passing among the Elethi, the Diobessi [Probably a canton or division of the Bessi.], the Carbilesi; and then the Brysæ, the Sapæi, and the Odomanti. The territory of the Odrysæ [The most powerful people of Thrace; dwelling on both sides of the Artiscus, and on the plain of the Hebrus.] gives birth to the Hebrus [Now the Maritza. It rises near the point where Mount Scomius joins Mount Rhodope. The localities of most of the tribes here named are unknown.], its banks being inhabited by the Cabyleti, the Pyrogeri, the Drugeri, the Cænici, the Hypsalti, the Beni, the Corpili, the Bottiæi, and the Edoni [The name of this people is often used by the poets to express the whole of Thrace. The district of Edonis, on the left bank of the Strymon, properly extended from Lake Cercinitis as far east as the river Nestus.]. In the same district are also the Selletæ, the Priantæ, the Doloncæ, the Thyni, and the Greater Cœletæ, below Mount Hæmus, the Lesser at the foot of Rhodope. Between these tribes runs the river Hebrus. We then come to a town at the foot of Rhodope, first called Poneropolis [Or “Trouble City,” also called Eumolpias.], afterwards Philippopolis [Or “Philip’s City,” founded by Philip of Macedon; still called Philippopoli.] from the name of its founder, and now, from the peculiarity of its situation, Trimontium [Because it stood on a hill with three summits. Under the Roman empire it was the capital of the province of Thracia.]. To reach the summit of Hæmus you have to travel six [On account probably of the winding nature of the roads; as the height of the Balkan range in no part exceeds 3000 feet. With Theopompus probably originated the erroneous notion among the ancients as to its exceeding height.] miles. The sides of it that look in the opposite direction and slope towards the Ister are inhabited by the Mœsi [The people of Mœsia. The Aorsi and Getæ are again mentioned in C. of this Book.], the Getæ, the Aorsi, the Gaudæ, and the Clariæ; below them, are the Arræi Sarmatæ [The inhabitants of the present Bulgaria, it is supposed.], also called Arreatæ, the Scythians, and, about the shores of the Euxine, the Moriseni and the Sithonii, the forefathers of the poet Orpheus [Following the account which represent him as a king of the Cicones, and dwelling in the vicinity of Mount Rhodope. The Sithonii here mentioned dwelt about the mouth of the Ister, or Danube, and were a different people from those of Sithonia, in Chalcidice, referred to in a previous note.], dwell.

Thus is Thrace bounded by the Ister on the north, by the Euxine, and the Propontis [The Sea of Marmora.] on the east, and by the Ægean Sea on the south; on the coast of which, after leaving the Strymon, we come in turn to Apollonia [It is difficult to conceive which place of this name is here alluded to, as there seem to have been four places on this coast so called, and all mentioned by Pliny in the present Book.], Œsyma [Called Æsyma by Homer; between the rivers Strymon and Nestus.], Neapolis [Now called Kavallo, on the Strymonic Gulf. The site of Datos appears to be unknown.] and Datos. In the interior is the colony of Philippi [Now called Filiba, or Felibejik, on a height of Mount Pangæus, on the river Gangites, between the Nestus and the Strymon. It was founded by Philip, on the site of the ancient town of Crenides, in the vicinity of the gold mines. Here Augustus and Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius, B.C. 42; and here the Apostle Paul first preached the Gospel in Europe, A.D. 53. See Acts xvi. 12.], distant from Dyrrhachium 325 miles; also Scotussa [Its site seems unknown, but it is evidently a different place from that mentioned in the last Chapter.], the city of Topiris, the mouth of the river Mestus [Also called Mestus.], Mount Pangæus, Heraclea [Sintica, previously mentioned.], Olynthos [Now Aco Mamas, at the head of the Toronaic Gulf. It was the most important Greek city on the coast of Macedon. It was taken and destroyed by Philip, B.C. 347, and its inhabitants sold as slaves. Mecyberna, already mentioned, was used as its sea-port.], Abdera [On the coast, and east of the river Nestus. Its people were proverbial for their stupidity, though it produced the philosophers Democritus, Protagoras, and Anaxarchus. No traces of its site are to be found.], a free city, the people of the Bistones [Now called the Lagos Buru. The name of the Bistones is sometimes used by the poets for that of the Thracians in general.] and their Lake. Here was formerly the city of Tirida, which struck such terror with its stables of the horses [Or mares rather. Diomedes was the son of Ares, or Mars, and king of the Bistones. He was slain by Hercules.] of Diomedes. At the present day we find here Dicæa [By some identified with the modern Curnu, by others with Bauron.], Ismaron [Or Ismarus, at the foot of Mount Ismarus.], the place where Parthenion stood, Phalesina, and Maronea [Now Marogna.], formerly called Orthagorea. We then come to Mount Serrium [A promontory opposite the island of Samothrace.] and Zone [A town on a promontory of the same name, said to have been frequented by Orpheus.], and then the place called Doriscus [The Plain of Doriscus is now called the Plain of Romigik. Parisot suggests the true reading here to be 100,000, or, as some MSS. have it, 120,000, there being nothing remarkable in a plain containing 10,000 men. Pliny however does not mention it as being remarkable, but merely suggests that the method used by Xerxes here for numbering his host is worthy of attention.], capable of containing ten thousand men, for it was in bodies of ten thousand that Xerxes here numbered his army. We then come to the mouth of the Hebrus [Now the Maritza. At its mouth it divides into two branches, the eastern forming the port of Stentor.], the Port of Stentor, and the free town of Ænos [Still called Enos.], with the tomb there of Polydorus [A son of Priam and Hecuba, murdered by Polymnestor, king of the Thracian Chersonesus, to obtain his treasures. See the Æneid, B. iii.], the region formerly of the Cicones.

From Doriscus there is a winding coast as far as Macron Tichos [From the Greek, μάκρον τεῖχος.], or the “Long Wall,” a distance of 122 miles; round Doriscus flows the river Melas, from which the Gulf of Melas [Now the Gulf of Enos.] receives its name. The towns are, Cypsela [Now Ipsala, or Chapsylar, near Keshan.], Bisanthe [Now Rodosto, or Rodostshig, on the coast of the Propontis, or Sea of Marmora.], and Macron Tichos, already mentioned, so called because a wall extends from that spot between the two seas,—that is to say, from the Propontis to the Gulf of Melas, thus excluding the Chersonesus [Now called the Peninsula of the Dardanelles, or of Gallipoli. The wall was built to protect it from incursions from the mainland.], which projects beyond it.

The other side of Thrace now begins, on the coast [He here skips nearly five degrees of latitude, and at once proceeds to the northern parts of Thrace, at the mouth of the Danube, and moves to the south.] of the Euxine, where the river Ister discharges itself; and it is in this quarter perhaps that Thrace possesses the finest cities, Histropolis [Or, the “city of the Ister,” at the south of Lake Halmyris, on the Euxine. Its site is not exactly known; but by some it is supposed to have been the same with that of the modern Kostendsje.], namely, founded by the Milesians, Tomi [Now Temesvar, or Jegni Pangola, the capital of Scythia Minor. It was said to have been so called from the Greek τέμνω, “to cut,” because Medea here cut to pieces the body of her brother Absyrtus. It is famous as the place of Ovid’s banishment; and here he wrote his ‘Tristia’ and his ‘Pontic Epistles.’], and Callatis [Usually identified with the modern Collat, or Collati.], formerly called Acervetis. It also had the cities of Heraclea and Bizone, which latter was swallowed up by an earthquake; it now has Dionysopolis [Its site does not appear to be known, nor yet those of many of the towns here mentioned.], formerly called Cruni, which is washed by the river Zyras. All this country was formerly possessed by the Scythians, surnamed Aroteres; their towns were, Aphrodisias, Libistos, Zygere, Rocobe, Eumenia, Parthenopolis, and Gerania [This story no doubt arose from the similarity of its name to γέρανος, “a crane;” the cranes and the Pigmies, according to the poets, being in a state of continual warfare.], where a nation of Pigmies is said to have dwelt; the barbarians used to call them Cattuzi, and entertain a belief that they were put to flight by cranes. Upon the coast, proceeding from Dionysopolis, is Odessus [Supposed to be the present Varna.], a city of the Milesians, the river Panysus [Now called Daphne-Soui, according to D’Anville.], and the town of Tetranaulochus. Mount Hæmus, which, with its vast chain, overhangs the Euxine, had in former times upon its summit the town of Aristæum [Said to have been built by Aristæus, son of Apollo.]. At the present day there are upon the coast Mesembria [Now Missivri.], and Anchialum [Or Anchiale, now Akiali.], where Messa formerly stood. The region of Astice formerly had a town called Anthium; at the present day Apollonia [Now Sizeboli, famous for its temple of Apollo, with his statue, thirty cubits in height, which Lucullus carried to Rome. In later times it was called Sozopolis.] occupies its site. The rivers here are the Panisos, the Riras, the Tearus, and the Orosines; there are also the towns of Thynias [Now Tiniada.], Halmydessos [The present Midjeh, according to D’Anville.], Develton [Afterwards called Zagora, which name it still bears.], with its lake, now known as Deultum, a colony of veterans, and Phinopolis, near which last is the Bosporus [Or Straits of Constantinople.]. From the mouth of the Ister to the entrance of the Euxine, some writers have made to be a distance of 555 miles; Agrippa, however, increases the length by sixty miles. The distance thence to Macron Tichos, or the Long Wall, previously mentioned, is 150 miles; and, from it to the extremity of the Chersonesus, 126.

On leaving the Bosporus we come to the Gulf of Casthenes [Between Galata and Fanar, according to Brotier.], and two harbours, the one called the Old Men’s Haven, and the other the Women’s Haven. Next comes the promontory of Chrysoceras [Or Golden Horn; still known by that name.], upon which is the town of Byzantium [The site of the present Constantinople.], a free state, formerly called Lygos, distant from Dyrrhachium 711 miles,—so great being the space of land that intervenes between the Adriatic Sea and the Propontis. We next come to the rivers Bathynias and Pydaras [These rivers do not appear to have been identified.], or Athyras, and the towns of Selymbria [The present Silivri occupies its site.] and Perinthus [An important town of Thrace. Eski Erckli stands on its site.], which join the mainland by a neck only 200 feet in width. In the interior are Bizya [Now Vizia, or Viza.], a citadel of the kings of Thrace, and hated by the swallows, in consequence of the sacrilegious crime of Tereus [He alludes to the poetical story of Tereus, king of Thrace, Progne, and Philomela. Aldrovandus suggests that the real cause of the absence of the swallow is the great prevalence here of northern winds, to which they have an aversion.]; the district called Cænica [So called probably from the Thracian tribe of the Cænici, or Cæni.], and the colony of Flaviopolis, where formerly stood a town called Cæla. Then, at a distance of fifty miles from Bizya, we come to the colony of Apros, distant from Philippi 180 miles. Upon the coast is the river Erginus [Now called Erkene, a tributary of the Hebrus.]; here formerly stood the town of Ganos [All that is known of it is, that it is mentioned as a fortress on the Propontis.]; and Lysimachia [Hexamila now occupies its site.] in the Chersonesus is being now gradually deserted.

At this spot there is another isthmus [The isthmus or neck of the Peninsula of Gallipoli, or the Dardanelles.], similar in name to the other [That of Corinth. They are both about five miles wide at the narrowest part.], and of about equal width; and, in a manner by no means dissimilar, two cities formerly stood on the shore, one on either side, Pactye on the side of the Propontis, and Cardia [Now Cardia, or Caridia. It was the birth-place of king Eumenes.] on that of the Gulf of Melas, the latter deriving its name from the shape [From καρδία, in consequence of its supposed resemblance to a heart.] which the land assumes. These, however, were afterwards united with Lysimachia [Lysimachus destroyed Cardia, and, building Lysimachia, peopled it with the inhabitants.], which stands at a distance of five miles from Macron Tichos. The Chersonesus formerly had, on the side of the Propontis, the towns of Tiristasis, Crithotes, and Cissa [Mannert identities it with the ancient Ægos and the modern Galata.], on the banks of the river Ægos [More generally called Ægospotamos, the “Goat River,” upon which the town of Ægos stood. It was here that Lysander defeated the Athenian fleet, B.C. 405, which put an end to the Peloponnesian war.]; it now has, at a distance of twenty-two [Antoninus, in his Itinerary, makes this distance twenty-six miles.] miles from the colony of Apros, Resistos, which stands opposite to the colony of Parium. The Hellespont also, which separates, as we have already [B. ii. c.. The present Straits of Gallipoli.] stated, Europe from Asia, by a channel seven stadia in width, has four cities facing each other, Callipolis [Now Gallipoli, a place of considerable commercial importance.] and Sestos [Now Ialova; famous in Grecian poetry, with Abydos, for the loves of Hero and Leander.] in Europe, and Lampsacus [Now Lamsaki.] and Abydos [The village of Aidos, or Avido, probably marks its site. To the north, Xerxes passed over to Sestos on his bridge of boats, B.C. 480.] in Asia. On the Chersonesus, there is the promontory of Mastusia [Now Capo Helles.], lying opposite to Sigeum [Now Jeni-Hisari, the N.W. promontory of Troas. Here Homer places the Grecian camp during the Trojan war.]; upon one side of it stands the Cynossema [Meaning the “Bitch’s tomb,” the fable being that Hecuba, in her old age, was changed into that animal. It was near the town of Madytus.] (for so the tomb of Hecuba is called), the naval station [Meaning that their fleet was anchored off here during the Trojan war.] of the Achæans, and a tower; and near it the shrine [A magnificent temple was erected near his tomb at Eleus, where he also had a sacred grove. It was greatly enriched by the votive offerings of Greek travellers. According to D’Anville, its site lay to the south of Mastusia.] of Protesilaüs. On the extreme front of the Chersonesus, which is called Æolium, there is the city of Elæus. Advancing thence towards the Gulf of Melas, we have the port of Cœlos [Now called Kilidbahr. Near this place the Spartans were defeated by the Athenians, who erected a trophy near the tomb of Hecuba.], Panormus, and then Cardia, previously mentioned.

In this manner is the third great Gulf of Europe bounded. The mountains of Thrace, besides those already mentioned, are Edonus, Gigemoros, Meritus, and Melamphyllos; the rivers are the Bargus and the Syrmus, which fall into the Hebrus. The length of Macedonia, Thrace, and the Hellespont has been already [In the present Chapter; where he says that the distance from Byzantium to Dyrrhachium is 711 miles. See p. 305.] mentioned; some writers, however, make it 720 miles, the breadth being 384.

What may be called a rock rather than an island, lying between Tenos and Chios, has given its name to the Ægean Sea; it has the name of Æx [Αἲξ, “a goat.” Other authors give other derivations for the name of Ægean,—from the town of Ægæ in Eubœa, or from Ægeus, the father of Theseus, who threw himself into it; or from Ægæa, a queen of the Amazons, who perished there; or from Ægæon, a god of the sea; or from the Greek αἰγὶς, “a squall,” on account of its storms.] from its strong resemblance to a goat, which is so called in Greek, and shoots precipitately from out of the middle of the sea. Those who are sailing towards the isle of Andros from Achaia, see this rock on the left, boding no good, and warning them of its dangers. Part of the Ægean Sea bears the name of Myrtoan [See c. of this Book.], being so called from the small island [of Myrtos] which is seen as you sail towards Macedonia from Geræstus, not far from Carystus [Both places in Eubœa, mentioned in c. of this Book.] in Eubœa. The Romans include all these seas under two names,—the Macedonian, in those parts where it touches the coasts of Macedonia or Thrace, and the Grecian where it washes the shores of Greece. The Greeks, however, divide the Ionian Sea into the Sicilian and the Cretan Seas, after the name of those islands; and they give the name of Icarian to that part which lies between Samos and Myconos. The gulfs which we have already mentioned, have given to these seas the rest of their names. Such, then, are the seas and the various nations which are comprehended in the third great Gulf of Europe.

Chap. 19. (12.)—The Islands Which Lie Before the Lands Already Mentioned.

Lying opposite to Thesprotia, at a distance of twelve miles from Buthrotus, and of fifty from Acroceraunia, is the island of Corcyra [Now Corfu. Of its city of Corcyra only a few ruins now exist.], with a city of the same name, the citizens of which are free; also a town called Cassiope [There are still some remains of it near the village called Cassopo.], and a temple dedicated to Jupiter Cassius. This island is ninety-seven miles in length, and in Homer has the names of Scheria and Phæacia; while Callimachus calls it Drepane. There are some other islands around it, such as Thoronos [Now Fano, or Merlere.], lying in the direction of Italy, and the two islands of Paxos [Now Paxo and Antipaxo.] in that of Leucadia, both of them five miles distant from Corcyra. Not far [On the contrary, they lie at the other end of the isle of Corcyra. Some of them are mere rocks, and cannot be distinguished by their ancient names. The present names of four are Sametraki, Diaplo, Boaia, and the Isle of Ulysses.] from these, and in front of Corcyra, are Ericusa, Marathe, Elaphusa, Malthace, Trachie, Pythionia, Ptychia, Tarachie, and, off Phalacrum [Now Capo Drasti.], a promontory of Corcyra, the rock into which (according to the story, which arises no doubt from the similarity of appearance) the ship of Ulysses was changed.

Before Leucimna [Now Capo Levkimo. The islands are those of Santo Niccolo.] we find the islands of Sybota, and between Leucadia and Achaia a great number of islands, among which are those called Teleboïdes [Or Islands of the Teleboans.], as also Taphiæ; by the natives, those which lie before Leucadia are called by the names of Taphias, Oxiæ, and Prinoessa [These three seem to be those now called Magnisi, Kalamota, and Kastus. These lie facing the promontory of Leucadia, the others opposite Ætolia.]; while those that are in front of Ætolia are the Echinades [Opposite Acarnania: by the Venetians they were called the Islands of Kurtzolari. Some of them are cultivated, others again are mere rocks.], consisting of Ægialia, Cotonis, Thyatira, Geoaris, Dionysia, Cyrnus, Chalcis, Pinara, and Mystus.

In front of these, and lying out at sea, are Cephallenia [Now called Cephallenia.] and Zacynthus [Now Zante.], both of them free, Ithaca [Now Thiaki, or Cefalogna Piccola—Little Cephallenia.], Dulichium [The general opinion is, that Strabo is right in identifying this island with one of the Echinades; but it seems impossible now to say which of them was so called.], Same [Sometimes confounded with Cephallenia; but, according to Virgil and Mela, as well as Pliny, they were different islands.], and Crocyle [Crocylæa was a town of Acarnania, referred to by Homer; and there was a district of Ithaca called Crocylcium. Pliny is probably in error in mentioning Crocyle as an island.]. Cephallenia, formerly known as Melæna [Or the “Black Island;” probably from its thick foliage.], lies at a distance of eleven miles from Paxos, and is ninety-three miles in circumference: its city of Same has been levelled to the ground by the Romans; but it still possesses three others [Pale, Cranii, and Proni.]. Between this island and Achaia lies the island of Zacynthus, remarkable for its city of the same name, and for its singular fertility. It formerly had the name of Hyrie, and lies to the south of Cephallenia, at a distance of twenty-five miles; in it there is the famous mountain of Elatus [So called from its fir-trees. It now has the name of Scopo.]. This island is thirty-six miles in circumference. At a distance of fifteen miles from Zacynthus is Ithaca, in which is Mount Neritus [Now Monte Stefano.]; its circumference in all is twenty-five miles. Twelve miles distant from this island is Araxus [See c. of this Book.], a promontory of the Peloponnesus. Before Ithaca, lying out in the main sea, are Asteris [Supposed by some writers to be the same with the rocky isle now called Dyscallio. Though mentioned by Homer, its existence was disputed by many of the ancient commentators.] and Prote; and before Zacynthus, at a distance of thirty-five miles in the direction of the south-east wind, are the two Strophades [The modern Strivali and Stamphane.], by some known as the Plotæ. Before Cephallenia lies Letoia [The present Guardiania, according to Lapie.], before Pylos the three Sphagiæ [According to Ansart, these were Prote, now Prodano, and Sphagia, formerly Sphacteria, before Pylos, now called Zonchio, or Old Navarino; the third being perhaps the isle of Bechli, in the Bay of Navarino.], and before Messene the Œnussæ [Now called Sapienza, Santa Maria, and Cabrera.], as many in number.

In the Asinæan Gulf there are the three Thyrides [Venetico and Formignes are the names of two of them.], and in that of Laconia Theganusa [Now Servi.], Cothon, and Cythera [The modern Cerigo.], with the town of that name, the former name of which island was Porphyris. It is situate five miles from the promontory of Malea [It is much further from the Cape of Malea or Santo Angelo than the distance here mentioned. It derived its name of Porphyris from the purple fishery established here by the Phœnicians.], thus forming a strait very dangerous to navigation. In the Gulf of Argolis are Pityusa [The modern Isle of Port Tolon. Irine is the present Hipsyli according to Leake, who also identifies Ephyre with Spetzia.], Irine, and Ephyre; opposite the territory of Hermione [At the south of Argolis.], Tiparenus, Aperopia [The modern Dhoko, according to Leake. Some authorities think that Tiparenus, and not Ephyre, is the modern Spetzia.], Colonis [Leake thinks that Colonis and Hydreia, now called Hydra, were the same island; but Kiepert thinks it the same as the small island to the south of Spetzia.], and Aristera; and, opposite that of Trœzen, Calauria [Now Poros.], at a distance of half a mile, Plateis [These are the islands now called Moni Jorench, Kophinidia, and San Giorgio d’Arbora. It is perhaps impossible to identify them, except that Belbina is generally supposed to be the island of San Giorgio.], Belbina, Lasia, and Baucidias. Opposite Epidaurus is Cecryphalos [Now Kyra.], and Pityonesos [The modern Angistri.], six miles distant from the mainland; and, at a distance of fifteen miles from this last, Ægina [Which name, or Eghina, it still retains.], a free island, the length of which, as you sail past it, is eighteen miles. This island is twenty miles distant from Piræus, the port of Athens: it used formerly to be called Œnone. Opposite the promontory of Spiræum [See c. of this Book.], lie Eleusa [Probably the modern Laoussa, one of this group.], Adendros [By Brotier said to be the modern Pentenesia. The other islands here mentioned seem not to have been identified.], the two islands called Craugiæ, the two Cæciæ, Selachusa, Cenchreis, and Aspis; as also, in the Gulf of Megara, the four Methurides. Ægila [Now Cerigotto.] lies at a distance of fifteen miles from Cythera, and of twenty-five from Phalasarna, a city of Crete.

Chap. 20.—Crete.

Crete itself lies from east to west, the one side facing the south, the other the north, and is known to fame by the renown of its hundred cities. Dosiades says, that it took its name from the nymph Crete, the daughter of Hesperides [Dalechamps suggests Hesperus.]; Anaximander, from a king of the Curetes, Philistides of Mallus * * * * *; while Crates says that it was at first called Aëria, and after that Curetis; and some have been of opinion that it had the name of Macaron [The island “of the Blessed.”] from the serenity of its climate. In breadth it nowhere exceeds fifty miles, being widest about the middle. In length, however, it is full 270 miles, and 589 in circumference, forming a bend towards the Cretan Sea, which takes its name from it. At its eastern extremity is the Promontory of Sammonium [Now Capo Salomon.], facing Rhodes, while towards the west it throws out that of Criumetopon [From the Greek κριοῦ μέτωπον, “the ram’s forehead”; now called Capo Crio.], in the direction of Cyrene.

The more remarkable cities of Crete are, Phalasarna, Etæa [Also called Elæa. Pococke speaks of it as a promontory called Chaule-burnau.], Cisamon [Hardouin calls it Chisamo.], Pergamum, Cydonia [The modern Khania. The quince derived its Latin name, “Malum Cydonium,” from this district, to which it was indigenous. From its Latin name it was called melicotone by the writers of the Elizabethan period.], Minoium [Now Minolo, according to Hardouin.], Apteron [The port of Apteron, or Aptera, which Mr. Pashley supposes to be denoted by the ruins of Palæokastro; he also thinks that its port was at or near the modern Kalyres.], Pantomatrium, Amphimalla [Now La Suda, according to Hardouin, who says that Rhithymna is called Retimo; Panormus, Panormo; and Cytæum, Setia.], Rhithymna, Panormus, Cytæum, Apollonia, Matium [Supposed by Ansart to have stood in the vicinity of the modern city of Candia.], Heraclea, Miletos, Ampelos, Hierapytna [Strabo says that it stood on the narrowest part of the island, opposite Minoa. Vestiges of it have been found at the Kastéle of Hierapetra. Its foundation was ascribed to the Corybantes.], Lebena [Now Lionda.], and Hierapolis; and, in the interior, Gortyna [Next to Cnossus in splendour and importance. Mr. Pashley places its site near the modern Haghius Dheka, the place of the martyrdom of the ten Saints, according to tradition, in the Decian persecution.], Phæstum, Cnossus [It has been remarked, that Pliny is mistaken here if he intends to enumerate Cnossus among the towns of the interior of Crete. The only remains of this capital of Crete, situate on the north of the island, are those seen at Makro-Teikho, or the “Long Walls,” so called from the masses of Roman brick-work there seen.], Polyrrenium, Myrina, Lycastus, Rhamnus, Lyctus, Dium [Though an inland town, it probably stood in the vicinity of the headland or promontory of the same name, which is now called Kavo Stavro. Many of these names are utterly unknown.], Asus, Pyloros, Rhytion, Elatos, Pharæ, Holopyxos, Lasos, Eleuthernæ [One of the most important towns of Crete, on the N.W. slope of Mount Ida, about fifty stadia from the port of Astale. Mr. Pashley says that some remains probably of this place are still to be seen on a hill near a place called Eletherna, five miles south of the great convent of Arkadhi.], Therapnæ, Marathusa, and Tylisos; besides some sixty others, of which the memory only exists. The mountains are those of Cadistus [The loftiest point of the mountain-range that traverses the island of Crete from west to east. Its head is covered with snow. The modern name is Psiloriti, looking down on the plain of Mesara. The word Ida is supposed to mean a mountain in which mines are worked, and the Idæi Dactyli of Crete were probably among the first workers in iron and bronze. The position of Mount Cadistus, belonging to the range of White Mountains, has been fixed by Hoeck at Cape Spadha, the most northerly point of the island. It is thought that Pliny and Solinus are in error in speaking of Cadistus and Dictynnæus as separate peaks, these being, both of them, names of the mountain of which the cape was formed; the latter name having been given in later times, from the worship and temple there of Dictynna.], Ida, Dictynnæus, and Corycus [Now Grabusa, the N.W. promontory of Crete.]. This island is distant, at its promontory of Criumetopon, according to Agrippa, from Phycus [Now Ras-al-Sem, or Cape Rasat, in Africa. The distance, according to Brotier, is in reality about 225 miles.], the promontory of Cyrene, 125 miles; and at Cadistus, from Malea in the Peloponnesus, eighty. From the island of Carpathos [Now Skarpanto.], at its promontory of Sammonium it lies in a westerly direction, at a distance of sixty miles; this last-named island is situate between it and Rhodes.

The other islands in its vicinity, and lying in front of the Peloponnesus, are the two isles known as Corycæ, and the two called Mylæ [According to Hardouin, all of these are mere rocks rather than islands.]. On the north side, having Crete on the right, and opposite to Cydonia, is Leuce [The modern Haghios Theodhoros.], and the two islands known as Budroæ [According to Hoeck, they are now called Turlure.]. Opposite to Matium lies Dia [Now called Standiu.]; opposite to the promontory of Itanum [Now Capo Xacro, on the east, though Cape Salomon, further north, has been suggested. In the latter case, the Grandes islands would correspond with Onisia and Leuce, mentioned by Pliny.], Onisia and Leuce; and over against Hierapytna, Chrysa and Gaudos [Now Gaidurognissa. None of the other islands here mentioned seem to have been identified.]. In the same neighbourhood, also, are Ophiussa, Butoa, and Aradus; and, after doubling Criumetopon, we come to the three islands known as Musagorus. Before the promontory of Sammonium lie the islands of Phocœ, the Platiæ, the Sirnides, Naulochos, Armedon, and Zephyre.

Belonging to Hellas, but still in the Ægean Sea, we have the Lichades [Between Eubœa and Locris. They are now called Ponticonesi.], consisting of Scarphia, Coresa, Phocaria, and many others which face Attica, but have no towns upon them, and are consequently of little note. Opposite Eleusis, however, is the far-famed Salamis [Now Koluri. It is memorable for the naval battle fought off its coast, when Xerxes was defeated by the Greeks, B.C. 480.]; before it, Psyttalia [Now called Lypsokutali.]; and, at a distance of five miles from Sunium, the island of Helene [Now Makronisi, or “the Long Island.” Its ancient name was also Macris. Strabo identifies it with the Homeric Cranaë, to which Paris fled with Helen.]. At the same distance from this last is Ceos [Usually called Cea, one of the Cyclades, about thirteen miles S.E. of Sunium. Its modern name is Zea. Iulis was the most important town, and the birth-place of the poets Simonides and Bacchylides, of the sophist Prodicus, the physician Erasistratus, and the Peripatetic philosopher Ariston. Extensive remains of it still exist.], which some of our countrymen have called Cea, and the Greeks Hydrussa, an island which has been torn away from Eubœa. It was formerly 500 stadia in length; but more recently four-fifths of it, in the direction of Bœotia, have been swallowed up by the sea. The only towns it now has left are Iulis and Carthæa [There are considerable remains of this town, called by the inhabitants Stais Palais.]; Coresus [Or Coresia. It was the harbour of Iulis, to which place we learn from Strabo that its inhabitants were transferred.] and Pœëessa [On the S.W. side of the island. Its ruins are inconsiderable, but retain their ancient name.] have perished. Varro informs us, that from this place there used to come a cloth of very fine texture, used for women’s dresses.