Chaps. 29-49.

Chap. 29. (18.)—Osseous Stones. Palm Stones. Corani. Black Stones.

Theophrastus and Mucianus are of opinion that there are certain stones which bring [Democritus, amongst the ancients, and Savonarola and Cardan, in more recent times, have attributed to stones the powers of reproduction. Vivès speaks of certain diamonds which conceive and fructify; and Avicenna speaks of the selenite or moon-stone of Arabia, which, when suspended from a tree, generates other stones of a similar nature. Tournefort also entertained similar opinions.] forth other stones. Theophrastus states, also, that a fossil [Fossil teeth of mammiferæ, probably.] ivory is found, both white and black; that the earth, too, produces bones, and that osseous [Fossil animal remains, no doubt.] stones are sometimes found. In the vicinity of Munda in Spain, the place where the Dictator Cæsar defeated Pompeius, [Cneius Pompeius. See B. iii. c. 3.] there are stones found, which, when broken asunder, bear the impression of palm leaves. [“Palmati.” This is more probably the meaning, than the “human palm,” as Littré renders it. They were fossil impressions of leaves, in all probability.]

There are some black stones, also, which are held in much the same esteem as the marbles; the Tænarian [See Chapter of this Book: also B. iv. cc. 7, 8.] stone, for example. Varro says that the black stone of Africa is more durable than that of Italy; while, on the other hand, the white corani [Stones so called, possibly, from being found in the vicinity of Cora in Italy: See B. iii. c. 9. These stones are also mentioned by Isidorus, Orig. B. xvi. c. 4.] are harder than Parian marble. He states, also, that the silex of Luna admits of being cut with a saw; that that of Tusculum decrepitates in the fire; that the tawny silex of the Sabine districts, with the addition of oil, will yield a flame even; and that, at Volsinii, molar stones [Identified by Ajasson and Desfontaines? with Quartz molar agate, very abundant in this volcanic region of Italy.] for grinding are found. Among the prodigies that have happened, I find mention made of millstones that have moved of themselves,

Chap. 30.—Molar Stones. Pyrites; Seven Remedies.

In no country are the molar stones [“Molares.” “Millstone.”] superior to those of Italy; stones, be it remembered, and not fragments of rock: there are some provinces, too, where they are not to be found at all. Some stones of this class are softer than others, and admit of being smoothed with the whetstone, so as to present all the appearance, at a distance, of ophites. [Or Serpentine. See Chapter of this Book.] There is no stone of a more durable nature than this; for in general, stone, like wood, suffers from the action, more or less, of rain, heat, and cold. Some kinds, again, become deteriorated by the action of the moon, while others are apt to contract a rust in lapse of time, or to change their white colour when steeped in oil.

(19.) Some persons give this molar stone the name of “pyrites,” [Not the Pyrites of modern Mineralogy, combinations of sulphur with various mineral ores.] from the circumstance that it has a great affinity to fire; [The Greek for “fire” being πῦρ.] but there is also another kind of pyrites, of a more porous nature, and another, [Sulphate of copper, probably, our Chalcopyrite, or yellow copper pyrites.] again, which resembles copper. This last, it is said, is found in the mines, near Acamas, [See B. v. c. 35.] in the Isle of Cyprus; one variety of it being of a silver, another of a golden, colour. There are various methods of melting these stones, some persons fusing them twice, or three times even, in honey, till all the liquid has evaporated; while others, again, calcine them upon hot coals, and, after treating them with honey, wash them like copper.

The medicinal properties which these minerals possess are of a calorific, desiccative, dispersive, and resolvent nature, and, applied topically, they case indurations to suppurate. They are employed also, in a crude state and pulverized, for the cure of scrofulous sores and boils. Some writers mention another kind of pyrites also. Those among them have the greatest affinity to fire which we distinguish as “live” [Or “quick,” “vivos.” Ajasson identifies these with the quartz agates that form our gun-flints, a Chalcedonic variety of Silica.] pyrites. They are the most ponderous of all, and are found remarkably useful for advance-guards when laying out encampments; for, on being struck with a nail or any other kind of stone, they emit a spark, which, received upon sulphur, dried fungus, [Amadue, or German tinder.] or leaves, produces a fire almost sooner than it could be named.

Chap. 31.—Ostracites; Four Remedies. Amianthus; Two Remedies.

The several varieties of ostracites [Fossil shells of oysters and bivalve mollusks, combined, probably, with Fahlunite or Hydrous Iolite.] bear a resemblance to shells. They are used by way of substitute for pumice-stone, for smoothing the skin. Taken in drink, they arrest discharges of blood; and, applied topically with honey, they are curative of ulcerations and pains in the mamillæ.

Amianthus [This is the most delicate variety of Asbestus, a kind of Hornblende: it presents the lustre of satin. As to Asbestus, see B. xix. c. 4, where Pliny has evidently taken it to be a vegetable production.] resembles alumen [See B. xxxv. c..] in appearance, and suffers no diminution from the action of fire. This substance effectually counteracts all noxious spells, those wrought by magicians in particular.

Chap. 32.—Geodes; Three Remedies.

Geodes [“Earthy” stone. These are either nodules of iron-stone, hollow in the centre, or else round, inorganic masses, hollow, and lined with crystals within. These latter are mostly of a silicious nature.] is so called from its formation, it containing earth within. It is remarkably beneficial for the eyes, and is used for the cure of diseases of the testes and mamillæ.

Chap. 33.—Melitinus; Six Remedies.

The stone called “melitinus” [It was, probably, a yellow, argillaceous earth, and it is more probable that it derived its name from μελὶ, “honey,” in consequence of its colour than by reason of its supposed sweet juices. The Mellite, Mellitite, or Honey-stone of modern Mineralogy, also known as Mellate of Alumina, has its name from its honey-yellow colour. It is found in Thuringia, Moravia, and Bohemia; but most probably was unknown in the days of Pliny.] yields a liquid that is sweet, like honey. Bruised and incorporated with wax, it is curative of pituitous eruptions, spots upon the skin, and ulcerations of the fauces. It removes epinyctis [See B. xx. cc. 6, 21.] also, and, applied as a pessary, in wool, it alleviates pains in the uterus.

Chap. 34.—Gagates: Six Remedies.

Gagates [Our jet, which somewhat resembles cannel-coal, and is found in clay soils.] is a stone, so called from Gages, the name of a town and river in Lycia. [See B. v. c. 28, where a place called “Gagæ” is mentioned. In Note 3900 to that Chapter, “gagates” is erroneously rendered “agate.”] It is asserted, too, that at Leucolla [See B. v. c. 26.] the sea throws it up, and that it is found over a space twelve stadia in extent. It is black, smooth, light, and porous, differs but little from wood in appearance, [This comparison is not inapt, as it is closely akin to Lignite, or brown coal.] is of a brittle texture, and emits a disagreeable odour [A bituminous and animal odour, Ajasson says, quite peculiar to itself.] when rubbed. Marks made upon pottery with this stone cannot be effaced. When burnt, it gives out a sulphureous smell; and it is a singular fact, that the application of water ignites it, while that of oil quenches it. [He has borrowed this erroneous assertion, probably, from Nicander, who, with Pliny, says the same of the “Thracian stone,” which has not been identified, but is supposed to have been a sort of coal. See B. xxxiii. c..] The fumes of it, burnt, keep serpents at a distance, and dispel hysterical affections: they detect a tendency also to epilepsy, [This is, probably, the meaning of “sonticus morbus,” a disease, which, according to the jurists, excused those affected with it, from attending in courts of justice.] and act as a test of virginity. [Albertus Magnus, De Mineral. B. ii., says that if it is given in water to a female, it will have a diuretic effect immediately, if she is not in a state of virginity, and that the contrary will be the case if she is.] A decoction of this stone in wine is curative of tooth-ache; and, in combination with wax, it is good for scrofula. The magicians, it is said, make use of gagates in the practice of what they call axinomancy; [See B. xxx. c. 5. According to Dalechamps, this was practised by placing the jet upon a hatchet at a red heat.] and they assure us that it will be sure not to burn, if the thing is about to happen as the party desires.

Chap. 35.—Spongites: Two Remedies.

The stone called “spongites” is found in sponges, and is a marine formation. By some persons it is called “tecolithos,” [“Stone-macerater.” From τήκω, to “macerate,” and λιθὸς, “a stone.”] from the circumstance that it is curative of affections of the bladder. Taken in wine, it breaks and disperses urinary calculi.

Chap. 36.—Phrygian Stone.

Phrygian stone is so called from the country which produces it, and is a porous mass like pumice. It is first saturated with wine, and then calcined, the fire being kept up with the bellows till the stone is brought to a red heat; which done, it is quenched in sweet wine. This operation is repeated three times. The only use made of it is for dyeing cloths. [Dioscorides says that it was found in Cappadocia also; and both he and Galen attribute to it certain medicinal properties. It was used either for colouring, or else, like fuller’s earth, for taking the grease out of wool and cloth. Ajasson is inclined to think that it was either a volcanic scoria or a Peperite, also of volcanic origin.]

Chap. 37. (20.)—Hæmatites: Five Remedies. Schistos: Seven Remedies.

Schistos and hæmatites [Or “blood-stone,” mentioned already in Chapter of this Book.] have a certain affinity between them. The latter is found in mines, and, when burnt, has just the colour [He is evidently speaking here of the red peroxide of iron.] of minium. [Vermilion. See B. xxxiii. c..] It is calcined in the same manner as Phrygian stone, but is not quenched in wine. Adulterations of it are detected by the appearance of red veins in it, and by its comparative friability. It is marvellously useful as an application for bloodshot eyes, and, taken internally, it acts as a check upon female discharges. To patients vomiting blood, it is administered in combination with pomegranate-juice. It is very efficacious also for affections of the bladder; and it is taken with wine for the cure of wounds inflicted by serpents.

In all those cases the stone called “schistos” [Literally, “split” stone; so called, probably, from its laminated form. Ajasson identifies it with yellow or brown iron ore, known in Mineralogy as Limonite, or Brown Hematite.] is efficacious, though not in so high a degree as the other; the most serviceable being that which resembles saffron in colour. Applied with woman’s milk, it is particularly useful for arresting discharges from the corners of the eyes, [“Explendis oculorum lacunis.”] and it is also very serviceable for reducing procidence of those organs. Such, at least, is the opinion of the authors who have most recently written on the subject.

Chap. 38.—Æthiopic Hæmatites. Androdamas; Two Remedies. Arabian Hæmatites. Miltites or Hepatites. Anthracites.

Sotacus, one of the most ancient writers, says, that there are five kinds of hæmatites, in addition to the magnet [Mentioned in Chapter of this Book.] so called. He gives the preference among them to that of Æthiopia, [Mentioned also in Chapter. Probably Red peroxide of iron, in a massive form.] a very useful ingredient in ophthalmic preparations and the compositions which he calls “panchresta,” [“All-serviceable,” or “all-heal.”] and good for the cure of burns. The second, he says, is called “androdamas,” [“Man-subduing.”] of a black [The colour of Specular iron, or red peroxide of iron, being of a dark steel-grey or iron-black, this is probably another variety of it. Ajasson thinks that it includes compact or massive red oxide of iron, and scaly red iron, or red iron froth, which leaves red marks upon the fingers.] colour, remarkable for its weight and hardness, to which it owes its name, in fact, and found in Africa more particularly. It attracts silver, he says, copper, and iron, and is tested with a touchstone made of basanites. [See Chapter of this Book. Its alleged attraction of silver and copper is fabulous, no doubt.] It yields a liquid the colour of blood, and is an excellent remedy for diseases of the liver. The third kind that he mentions is the hæmatites [This is probably the Limonite, or Hydrous peroxide of iron, mentioned in the preceding Chapter. See Note above.] of Arabia, a mineral of equal hardness, and which with difficulty yields, upon the water-whetstone, a liquid sometimes approaching the tint of saffron. The fourth [Identified by Ajasson with Red ochre, or Reddle, a red peroxide of iron, used for red crayons in drawing.] kind, he says, is known as “hepatites,” [“Liver-stone.” Not to be confounded with the Hepatite of modern Mineralogy, or Sulphate of Barytes.] while raw, and as “miltites” [“Spleen-stone.”] when calcined; a substance good for burns, and more efficacious than rubrica [See B. xxxv. c..] for all the purposes for which that mineral is employed. The fifth [Identified by Ajasson with Laminated protoxide of iron. It has probably an affinity to the variety noticed above, in Notes and.] variety is schistos; a substance which, taken internally, arrests hæmorrhoidal discharges. Upon the same authority, it is recommended to take any kind of hæmatites, fasting, in doses of three drachmæ, triturated in oil, for affections of the blood. [Owing solely, in all probability, to its name, “blood-stone.”]

The same author mentions also a kind of schistos which has no affinity to hæmatites, and to which he gives the name of “anthracites.” [Ajasson is at a loss to know whether this is our Anthracite, a non-bituminous coal, or some kind of bituminous coal. Delafosse takes it to be pit-coal.] It is a native of Africa, he says, and is of a black colour. When rubbed upon a water-whetstone, it yields a black colour on the side which has adhered to the earth, and, on the opposite side, a saffron tint. He states also that it is a useful ingredient in ophthalmic preparations.

Chap. 39. (21)—Aëtites. Taphiusian Stone. Callimus.

The stone called aëtites [Or “eagle-stone.” It is a Geodes, mentioned in Chapter of this Book, a globular mass of clay iron-stone. Sometimes it is hollow within, and sometimes it encloses another stone, or a little water, or some mineral dust.] has a great reputation, in consequence of the name which it bears. It is found in the nests of eagles, as already mentioned in our Tenth Book. [Chapter 4.] There are always two of these stones found together, they say, a male stone and a female; and without them, it is said, the various eagles that we have described would be unable to propagate. Hence it is, too, that the young of the eagle are never more than two in number. There are four varieties of the aëtites: that of Africa is soft and diminutive, and contains in the interior—in its bowels as it were—a sweet, white, argillaceous earth. It is friable, and is generally thought to be of the female sex. The male stone, on the other hand, which is found in Arabia, is hard, and similar to a nut-gall in appearance; or else of a reddish hue, with a hard stone in the interior. The third kind is a stone found in the Isle of Cyprus, and resembles those of Africa in appearance, but is larger and flat, while the others are of a globular form: it contains a sand within, of a pleasing colour, and mixed with small stones; being so soft itself as to admit of being crushed between the fingers.

The fourth variety is known as the Taphiusian aëtites, and is found near Leucas, [See B. iv. c. 2.] at Taphiusa, a locality which lies to the right as you sail from Ithaca towards Cape Leucas. It is met with in the beds of rivers there, and is white and round; having another stone in the interior, the name given to which is “callimus:” none of the varieties of aëtites have a smoother surface than this. Attached to pregnant women or to cattle, in the skins of animals that have been sacrificed, these stones act as a preventive of abortion, care being taken not to remove them till the moment of parturition; for otherwise procidence of the uterus is the result. If, on the other hand, they are not removed at the moment when parturition is about to ensue, that operation of Nature cannot be effected.

Chap. 40.—Samian Stone: Eight Remedies.

Samian stone [A kind of pumice, Ajasson thinks, or porous feldspathic scoria from volcanos.] comes from the same island which produces the earth in praise of which we have spoken already. [In B. xxxv. c..] It is useful for giving a polish to gold, and it is employed medicinally for the treatment of ulcerations of the eyes, combined with milk in manner already [In Chapter of this Book.] described. It is good, too, for watery discharges of a chronic nature, from the eyes. Taken internally, it is useful for affections of the stomach, and it has the effect of dispelling vertigo and restoring the spirits when depressed. Some writers are of opinion that this stone may be administered with advantage for epilepsy and strangury; and it is employed as an ingredient in the restoratives known as “acopa.” [See B. xxiii. cc. 45, 80.] The test of its purity is its weight and its whiteness. Some persons will have it that, worn as an amulet, it acts as a preventive of abortion.

Chap. 41.—Arabian Stone; Six Remedies.

Arabian [Probably of a similar nature to the Samian stone.] stone resembles ivory in appearance; and in a calcined state it is employed as a dentifrice. [Pumice is still used as the basis of a dentifrice, but it destroys the enamel of the teeth.] It is particularly useful for the cure of hæmorrhoidal swellings, applied either in lint or by the aid of linen pledgets.

Chap. 42.—Pumice; Nine Remedies.

And here, too, I must not omit to give some account of pumice. [See Note above.] This name is very generally given, it is true, to those porous pieces of stone, which we see suspended in the erections known as “musæa,” [Or “temples of the Muses:” evidently grottos in the present instance.] with the view of artificially giving them all the appearance of caverns. But the genuine pumice-stones, that are in use for imparting smoothness to the skin of females, and not females only, but men as well, and, as Catullus [In allusion to the line, “Aridâ modo pumice expolitum”—“Just polished with dry pumice-stone.” Ep. I. l. 2. Both the backs of books and the parchment used for writing were rubbed with pumice.] says, for polishing books, are found of the finest quality in the islands of Melos and Nisyros [Sec B. v. c. 36.] and in the Æolian Isles. To be good, they should be white, as light as possible, porous and dry in the extreme, friable, and free from sand when rubbed.

Considered medicinally, pumice is of a resolvent and desiccative nature; for which purpose it is submitted to calcination, no less than three times, on a fire of pure charcoal, it being quenched as often in white wine. It is then washed, like cadmia, [See B. xxxiv. c..] and, after being dried, is put by for keeping, in a place as free from damp as possible. In a powdered state, pumice is used in ophthalmic preparations more particularly, and acts as a lenitive detergent upon ulcerations of the eyes. It also makes new flesh upon cicatrizations of those organs, and removes all traces of the marks. Some prefer, after the third calcination, leaving the pumice to cool, and then triturating it in wine. It is employed also as an ingredient in emollient poultices, being extremely useful for ulcerations on the head and generative organs; dentifrices, too, are prepared from it. According to Theophrastus, [Hist. B. ix. c. 18.] persons when drinking for a wager are in the habit [As a preventive of vomiting.] of taking powdered pumice first; but they run great risk, he says, if they fail to swallow the whole draught of wine at once; it being of so refrigerative a nature that grape-juice [“Musta.” Grape-juice in the process of being made into wine.] will absolutely cease to boil if pumice is put into it.

Chap. 43. (22.)—Stones for Mortars Used for Medicinal and Other Purposes. Etesian Stone. Thebaic Stone. Chalazian Stone.

Authors, too, have paid some attention to the stones in use for mortars, not only those employed for the trituration of drugs and pigments, but for other purposes as well. In this respect they have given the preference to Etesian [Delafosse suggests that this may have been grey-spotted granite. The name is doubtful, as “Edesian” and “Ephesian” are other readings.] stone before all others, and, next to that, to Thebaic stone, already mentioned [In Chapter of this Book.] as being called “pyrrhopœcilon,” and known as “psaranus” by some. The third rank has been assigned to chrysites, [“Golden stone.” A variety, perhaps, of the Thebaic stone with gold spots, mentioned in Chapter of this Book.] a stone nearly allied to Chalazian [Possibly so called from Χάλαζα, “hail,” it being, perhaps, a granite with spots like hailstones.] stone. For medicinal purposes, however, basanites [Sec Chapters and of this Book.] has been preferred, this being a stone that remits no particles from its surface. [In consequence of its extreme hardness.]

Those stones which yield a liquid, are generally looked upon as good for the trituration of ophthalmic preparations; and hence it is, that the Æthiopian stone is so much in request for the purpose. Tænarian stone, they say, Phœnician stone, and hæmatites, are good for the preparation of those medicinal compositions in which saffron forms an ingredient; but they also speak of another Tænarian stone, of a dark colour, which, like Parian [Phœnician stone and Tænarian stone do not appear to have been identified. Parian stone may probably have been white Parian marble.] stone, is not so well adapted for medicinal purposes. We learn from them, too, that Egyptian alabastrites, [See Chapter of this Book.] or white ophites, [Serpentine. See Chapters and.] from the virtues inherent in them, are considered still better adapted for these purposes than the kinds last mentioned. It is this kind of ophites, too, from which vessels, and casks even, are made.

Chap. 44.—Stone of Siphnos. Soft Stones.

At Siphnos, [See B. iv. cc. 22, 23.] there is a kind of stone [Ajasson identifies it with Ollar stone, talc, or soap-stone, a hydrous silicate of magnesia, and nearly allied to the Ophites of Chapters and.] which is hollowed and turned in the lathe, for making cooking-utensils and vessels for keeping provisions; a thing too, that, to my own knowledge, [He being a native of that part of Italy.] is done with the green stone [The Green Colubine Ollar stone; or soap-stone of Italy.] of Comum [See B. iii. c. 21.] in Italy. With reference, however, to the stone of Siphnos, it is a singular fact, that, when heated in oil, though naturally very soft, it becomes hard and black; so great a difference is there in the qualities of stone.

There are some remarkable instances, too, beyond the Alps, of the natural softness of some kinds of stone. In the province of the Belgæ, there is a white stone [Identified by Brotero with our Free-stone or grit-stone.] which admits of being cut with the saw that is used for wood, and with greater facility even. This stone is used as a substitute for roof-tiles and gutter-tiles, and even for the kind of roofing known as the pavonaceous [So called from its resemblance to the spots on a peacock’s tail. He alludes, probably, to the mode of roofing with tiles cut in the form of scales, still much employed on the continent, and in Switzerland more particularly.] style, if that is preferred. Such are the stones that admit of being cut into thin slabs.

Chap. 45.—Specular Stones.

As to specular [Or “Mirror-stone.” Transparent Selenite or gypsum; a sulphate of lime.] stone—for this, too, is ranked as one of the stones—it admits of being divided with still greater facility, and can be split into leaves as thin as may be desired. The province of Nearer Spain used formerly to be the only one that furnished it—not, indeed, the whole of that country, but a district extending for a hundred miles around the city of Segobrica. [Now Segorba, in Valentia.] But at the present day, Cyprus, Cappadocia, and Sicily, supply us with it; and, still more recently, it has been discovered in Africa: they are all, however, looked upon as inferior to the stone which comes from Spain. The sheets from Cappadocia are the largest in size; but then they are clouded. This stone is to be found also in the territory of Bononia, [Ajasson is of opinion that various kinds of mica and talc are the minerals here alluded to.] in Italy; but in small pieces only, covered with spots and encrusted in a bed of silex, there being a considerable affinity, it would appear, in their nature.

In Spain, the specular-stone is extracted from shafts sunk in the earth to a very considerable depth; though it is occasionally to be found just beneath the surface, enclosed in the solid rock, and extracted without difficulty, or else cut away from its bed. In most cases, however, it admits of being dug up, being of an isolated nature, and lying in pieces, like rag-stone, but never known as yet to exceed five feet in length. It would appear that this substance is originally a liquid, which, by an animating power in the earth, becomes congealed like crystal; and it is very evident that it is the result of petrifaction, from the fact that, when animals have fallen into the shafts from which it is extracted, the marrow of their bones becomes transformed into stone of a similar nature, by the end of a single winter. In some cases, too, it is found of a black colour: but the white stone has the marvellous property, soft as it is known to be, of resisting the action of the sun and of cold. Nor will it, if it is only protected from accidents, become deteriorated by lapse of time, a thing that is so generally the case with many other kinds of stone that are used for building purposes. The shavings, too, and scales of this stone, have been used of late for another purpose; the Circus Maximus having been strewed with them at the celebration of the games, with the object of producing an agreeable whiteness.

Chap. 46.—Phengites.

During the reign of Nero, there was a stone found in Cappadocia, as hard as marble, white, and transparent even in those parts where red veins were to be seen upon it; a property which has obtained for it the name of “phengites.” [From φεγγὸς, “brightness.” Beckmann is of opinion that this was a calcareous or gypseous spar (Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 66); but Ajasson seems to think that it was very similar to Parian marble, which was sometimes called by this name.] It was with this stone [This is more likely to apply to a white marble than to a calcareous or gypseous spar. Suetonius says, c. 14, that Domitian, when he suspected that plots were forming against him, caused the porticos in which he walked to be lined with Phengites, which by its reflection showed what was going on behind his back.] that Nero rebuilt the Temple of Fortune, surnamed Seia, [See B xviii. c. 2.] originally consecrated by King Servius, enclosing it within the precincts of his Golden Palace. [See Chapter of this Book.] Hence it was that, even when the doors were closed, there was light in the interior during the day; not transmitted from without, as would be the case through a medium of specular-stone, but having all the appearance of being enclosed within [Beckmann says, in reference to this passage, supposing that a kind of spar is meant by the word phengites —“It is probable that the openings of the walls of the building where the windows used to be, were in this instance filled up with phengites. which, by admitting a faint light, prevented the place from being dark, even when the doors were shut.”— Hist. Inv. Vol. II. p. 66. Bohn’s Edition.] the building.

In Arabia, too, according to Juba, there is a stone, transparent like glass, which is used for the same purposes as specular-stone.

Chap. 47.—Whetstones.

We must now pass on to the stones that are employed for handicrafts, and, first of all, whetstones for sharpening iron. Of these stones there are numerous varieties; the Cretan stones having been long held in the highest estimation, and the next best being those of Mount Taygetus, in Laconia; both of which are used as hones, and require oil. Among the water-whetstones, the first rank belonged to those of Naxos, and the second to the stones of Armenia, both of them already [In Chapter of this Book.] mentioned. The stones of Cilicia are of excellent quality, whether used with oil or with water; those of Arsinöe, [See B. v. cc. 22, 35, for two places of this name.] too, are very good, but with water only. Whetstones have been found also in Italy, which with water give a remarkably keen edge; and from the countries beyond the Alps, we have the whetstones known as “passernices.” [A Celtic word, probably.]

To the fourth class belong the hones which give an edge by the agency of human saliva, and are much in use in barbers’ shops. They are worthless, however, for all other purposes, in consequence of their soft and brittle nature: those from the district of Laminium, [See B. iii. c. 2.] in Nearer Spain, are the best of the kind.

Chap. 48.—Tophus.

Among the multitude of stones which still remain undescribed, there is tophus; [Identical, probably, with the Tufa of modern Mineralogy, which thence derives its name, a Carbonate of lime.] material totally unsuited for building purposes, in consequence of its perishableness. Still, however, there are some localities which have no other, Carthage, in Africa, for example. It is eaten away by the emanations from the sea, crumbled to dust by the wind, and shattered by the pelting of the rain: but human industry has found the means of protecting walls of houses built of it, with a coating of pitch, as a plaster of lime would corrode it. Hence it is, that we have the well-known saying, “that the Carthaginians use pitch [Thus reversing the order of things with the Romans, who put the lime on their houses, and the pitch in their wines. See B. xiv. cc. 3, 24, 25.] for their houses and lime [See B. xiv. c. 24.] for their wines,” this last being the method used by them in the preparation of their must.

In the territories of Fidenæ and Alba, in the vicinity of Rome, we find other soft kinds of stone; and, in Umbria and Venetia, there is a stone [A white tufa, Vitruvius says, B. i. c. 7.] which admits of being cut with the teeth of a saw. These stones are easy to be worked, and are capable of supporting a considerable weight, if they are only kept sheltered from the weather. Rain, however, frost, and dew, split them to pieces, nor can they resist the humidity of the sea-air. The stone [It was in reference, possibly, to this stone that Cicero made the remark, mentioned in Chapter of this Book; the heat of Chios being so great, perhaps, that the Tiburtine stone could not have endured it.] of Tibur can stand everything except heat, which makes it crack.

Chap. 49.—The Various Kinds of Silex.

The black silex [A general name for Silica, Flint, or Quartz, and the several varieties.] is in general the best; but in some localities, it is the red, and occasionally the white; as in the Anician quarries at Tarquinii, near Lake Volsinius, [See B. iii. c. 8.] for example, and those at Statonia, [See B. ii. c. 96, B. iii. c. 9, and B. xiv. c. 8.] the stone of which is proof against fire even. [Ajasson thinks that Travertine is meant; a tufa, or carbonate of lime, which is common in Tuscany.] These stones, sculptured for monumental purposes, are subject to no deterioration by lapse of time: moulds, too, are made from them, for the purpose of fusing copper. There is a green silex, also, which offers a most powerful resistance to the action of fire, but is never found in any large quantities, and, in all cases, in an isolated form, and not as a constituent part of solid rock. Of the other kinds, the pale silex is but rarely used for erections: being of globular form, it is not liable to injury, but at the same time it is insecure for building purposes, unless it is well braced and tightly held together. Nor yet does river silex offer any greater security, for it always has the appearance of being wet.