Book III. An Account of Countries, Nations, Seas, Towns, Havens, Mountains, Rivers, Distances, and Peoples Who Now Exist or Formerly Existed. Introduction.

Chaps. 1-3.

Thus far have I treated of the position and the wonders of the earth, of the waters, the stars, and the proportion of the universe and its dimensions. I shall now proceed to describe its individual parts; although indeed we may with reason look upon the task as of an infinite nature, and one not to be rashly commenced upon without incurring censure. And yet, on the other hand, there is nothing which ought less to require an apology, if it is only considered how far from surprising it is that a mere mortal cannot be acquainted with everything. I shall therefore not follow any single author, but shall employ, in relation to each subject, such writers as I shall look upon as most worthy of credit. For, indeed, it is the characteristic of nearly all of them, that they display the greatest care and accuracy in the description of the countries in which they respectively flourished; so that by doing this, I shall neither have to blame nor contradict any one.

The names of the different places will here be simply given, and as briefly as possible; the account of their celebrity, and the events which have given rise thereto, being deferred to a more appropriate occasion; for it must be remembered that I am here speaking of the earth as a whole, and I wish to be understood as using the names without any reference whatever to their celebrity, and as though the places themselves were in their infancy, and had not as yet acquired any fame through great events. The name is mentioned, it is true, but only as forming a part of the world and the system of the universe.

The whole globe is divided into three parts, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Our description commences where the sun sets and at the Straits of Gades [Now the Straits of Gibraltar.], where the Atlantic ocean, bursting in, is poured forth into the inland seas. As it makes its entrance from that side, Africa is on the right hand and Europe on the left; Asia lies between them [This is said more especially in reference to the western parts of Asia, the only portion which was perfectly known to the ancients. His meaning is, that Asia as a portion of the globe does not lie so far north as Europe, nor so far south as Africa.]; the boundaries being the rivers Tanais [Now the Don. It was usually looked upon as the boundary between Europe and Asia. Pliny’s meaning seems to be, that the Tanais divides Asia from Europe, and the Nile, Asia from Africa, the more especially as the part to the west of the Nile was sometimes considered as belonging to Asia. It has been however suggested that he intends to assign these rivers as the extreme eastern boundaries of the internal or Mediterranean sea.] and Nile. The Straits of the ocean, of which I have just spoken, extend fifteen miles in length and five [At no spot are the Straits less than ten miles in width; although D’Anville makes the width to be little less than five miles. This passage of our author is probably in a corrupt state.] in breadth, measured from the village of Mellaria [This probably stood near the site of the town of Tarifa of the present day.] in Spain to the Album Promontorium [Probably the point called ‘Punta del Sainar’ at the present day.] or White Promontory in Africa, as we learn from Turranius Gracilis, who was born in that vicinity. Titus Livius and Cornelius Nepos however have stated the breadth, where it is least, to be seven miles, and where greatest, ten; from so small a mouth as this does so immense an expanse of water open upon us! Nor is our astonishment diminished by the fact of its being of great depth; for, instead of that, there are numerous breakers and shoals, white with foam, to strike the mariner with alarm. From this circumstance it is, that many have called this spot the threshold of The Inland Sea.

At the narrowest part of the Straits, there are mountains placed to form barriers to the entrance on either side, Abyla [Now called Ximiera, Jebel-el-Mina, or Monte del Hacho.] in Africa, and Calpe [The Rock of Gibraltar.] in Europe, the boundaries formerly of the labours of Hercules [The fable was that they originally formed one mountain, which was torn asunder by Hercules, or as Pliny says, “dug through.”]. Hence it is that the inhabitants have called them the Columns of that god; they also believe that they were dug through by him; upon which the sea, which was before excluded, gained admission, and so changed the face of nature.

Chap. 1. (1.)—The Boundaries and Gulfs of Europe First Set Forth in a General Way.

I shall first then speak of Europe, the foster-mother of that people which has conquered all other nations, and itself by far the most beauteous portion of the earth. Indeed, many persons have, not without reason [This was the opinion of Herodotus, but it had been so strenuously combated by Polybius and other writers before the time of Pliny, that it is difficult to imagine how he should countenance it.], considered it, not as a third part only of the earth, but as equal to all the rest, looking upon the whole of our globe as divided into two parts only, by a line drawn from the river Tanais to the Straits of Gades. The ocean, after pouring the waters of the Atlantic through the inlet which I have here described, and, in its eager progress, overwhelming all the lands which have had to dread its approach, skirts with its winding course the shores of those parts which offer a more effectual resistance, hollowing out the coast of Europe especially into numerous bays, among which there are four Gulfs that are more particularly remarkable. The first of these begins at Calpe, which I have previously mentioned, the most distant mountain of Spain; and bends, describing an immense curve, as far as Locri and the Promontory of Bruttium [He probably alludes to Leucopetra, now called Capo dell’ Armi. Locri Epizephyrii was a town of Bruttium, situate north of the promontory of Zephyrium, now called Capo di Bruzzano.].

Chap. 2.—Of Spain Generally.

The first land situate upon this Gulf is that which is called the Farther Spain or Bætica [So called from the Bætis, now the Guadalquivir or Great River.]; next to which, beginning at the frontier town of Urgi [The situation of this town is not known, but it is supposed to have been about five leagues from the present city of Mujacar, or Moxacar. It was situate on the Sinus Urgitanus.], is the Nearer, or Tarraconensian [So called from the city of Tarraco, on the site of the present Tarragona.] Spain, extending as far as the chain of the Pyrenees. The Farther Spain is divided lengthwise into two provinces, Lusitania [Corresponding nearly in extent with the present kingdom of Portugal.] and Bætica, the former stretching along the northern side of the latter, and being divided from it by the river Ana [Now Gaudiana, a corruption of the Arabic Wadi Ana, “the river Ana.”].

The source of this river is in the district of Laminium [According to Hardouin this place is the modern town of Montiel, but Pinet and D’Anville make it the same as Alhambra.], in the Nearer Spain. It first spreads out into a number of small lakes, and then again contracts itself into a narrow channel, or entirely disappears under ground [According to modern writers it conceals itself in this manner for a distance of fifteen miles.], and after frequently disappearing and again coming to light, finally discharges itself into the Atlantic Ocean. Tarraconensian Spain lies on one side, contiguous to the Pyrenees, running downwards along the sides of that chain, and, stretching across from the Iberian Sea to the Gallic ocean [From the Balearic Channel to the Gulf of Gascony or Bay of Biscay.], is separated from Bætica and Lusitania by Mount Solorius [Probably the Sierra Nevada is meant by this name; Hardouin considers it the same as the Sierra de los Vertientes.], the chains of the Oretani [Probably the Sierra Morena.] and the Carpetani [The Monte de Toledo.], and that of the Astures [The Sierra de las Asturias.].

Chap. 3.—Of Bætica.

Bætica, so called from the river which divides it in the middle, excels all the other provinces in the richness of its cultivation and the peculiar fertility and beauty of its vegetation.

It consists of four jurisdictions, those of Gades [The present Cadiz. It was originally a Phœnician colony.], of Corduba [Now Cordova.], of Astigi [Now Ecija.], and of Hispalis [Now Seville.]. The total number of its towns is 175; of these nine are colonies [The Roman colonies or colonies “civium Romanorum” are those here meant. The colonists in such case enjoyed all the rights of Roman citizens, the town in which they lived being founded under the supervision of the Roman magistracy.], and eight municipal towns [“Municipia.” These were towns in conquered countries which were not founded by the Romans, but whose inhabitants retained their original institutions, at the same time receiving certain of the rights of Roman citizens; most frequently, immunity to a greater or less degree from payment of tribute.]; twenty-nine have been long since presented with the old Latin rights [“Latium;” also called “Jus Latii” and “Latinitas.” This was the name given to those circumscribed or limited rights as Roman citizens which were at first bestowed upon the conquered states of Italy, before the time of the Social War. Indeed the Latinus held a kind of intermediate state between the Civis Romanus with all his rights, and the peregrinus or foreigner with all his disabilities. These Latin rights were afterwards extended to the people of other countries, but retained their original name.]; six are free towns [The free towns were those, the inhabitants of which were at liberty to enjoy their ancient institutions and modes of internal government, though at the same time they enjoyed none of the privileges of Roman citizens.], three federate [“Fœderati civitates;” the inhabitants of which were called ‘fœderati’ or ‘socii.’ They were in alliance with the Romans, but in some cases paid them tribute in the same manner as the ‘stipendiaria’ next mentioned. In some instances they also enjoyed the Latin rights.], and 120 tributary.

In this district, the things that more especially deserve notice, or are more easily explained in the Latin tongue, are the following, beginning at the river Ana, along the line of the sea-shore; the town of Onoba, surnamed Æstuaria [From the numerous creeks or æstuaries with which the coast is here indented. Commentators are at a loss for the site of the town of Onoba (or Ossonoba according to some readings). D’Anville considers it to be the same with the present town of Moguer; other commentators have suggested Gibraleon, and the vicinity of Palos.]; the rivers Luxia and Urium [The Odiel and the Tinto; the Urium being supposed to be the same with the Tinto of the present day.], flowing through this territory between the Ana and the Bætis; the Marian [Some readings have “Hareni montes,” and others “Arenæ montes,” the “mountains of sand.” There is no doubt that the sandy heights or downs on this coast are here meant, which are called at the present day “Dunes” by the French, and by the natives “Arenas gordas.”] Mountains; the river Bætis; the coast of Corum [Probably the line of sea-shore between Roia and the city of Cadiz, skirting the Bay of Cadiz. Hardouin however thinks that the coast between the Guadalquivir and the Guadalete is meant, now occupied in part by the town of San Lucar de Barameda.], with its winding bay; opposite to which is Gades, of which we shall have occasion to speak among the islands [In the Fourth Book, c..]. Next comes the Promontory of Juno [The present Cape Trafalgar.], and the port of Bæsippo [Hardouin says that the present Vejer is the place meant, while others have suggested Puerto de Santa Maria, or Cantillana. Others again identify it with Bejer de la Frontera, though that place probably lies too far inland. The Roman ruins near Porto Barbato were probably its site.]; the towns of Bœlo [Hardouin and other commentators suggest that the site of the present Tarifa is here meant; it is more probable however that D’Anville is right in suggesting the now deserted town of Bolonia.] and Mellaria [Probably the present Tarifa.], at which latter begin the Straits of the Atlantic; Carteia [The exact site of Carteia is unknown; but it is generally supposed to have stood upon the bay which opens out of the straits on the west of the Rock of Gibraltar, now called the Bay of Algesiras or Gibraltar; and upon the hill at the head of the bay of El Rocadillo, about half-way between Algesiras and Gibraltar.], called by the Greeks Tartessos [We learn also from Strabo, that Tartessus was the same place as Carteia; it is not improbable that the former was pretty nearly the Phœnician name of the place, and the latter a Roman corruption of it, and that in it originated the ‘Tarshish’ of Scripture, an appellation apparently given to the whole of the southern part of the Spanish peninsula. Probably the Greeks preserved the appellation of the place more in conformity with the original Phœnician name.]; and the mountain of Calpe.

Along the coast of the inland sea [By the “inland sea” Pliny means the Mediterranean, in contradistinction to the Atlantic Ocean without the Straits of Cadiz.] is the town of Barbesula [The ruins of this place, probably, are still to be seen on the east bank of the river Guadiaro, here alluded to.] with its river; also Salduba [With its river flowing by it. This place is probably the present Marbella, situate on the Rio Verde.]; the town of Suel [Probably the present Castillo de Torremolinos, or else Castillo de Fuengirola.]; and then Malaca [The present city of Malaga. Hardouin thinks that the river Guadalquivirejo is here meant, but as that is some miles distant from the city, it is more probable that Guadalmedina, which is much nearer to it, is the stream alluded to.], with its river, one of the federate towns. Next to this comes Mænoba [Not improbably Velez Malaga, upon a river of the same name. Hardouin thinks that the place is the modern Torrox on the Fiu Frio, and D’Anville the present city of Almunecar, on the Rio Verde.], with its river; then Sexifirmum [Most probably the present Almunecar, but it is uncertain. D’Anville says the present Torre de Banas; others have suggested the town of Motril.], surnamed Julium; Selambina [Now Salobrena.]; Abdera [Either the present Adra or Abdera: it is uncertain which.]; and Murci [Probably the present Mujacar. D’Anville suggests Almeria.], which is at the boundary of Bætica. M. Agrippa supposed that all this coast was peopled by colonists of Punic origin. Beyond the Anas, and facing the Atlantic, is the country of the Bastuli [Also called Bastitani, a mixed race, partly Iberian and partly Phœnician.] and the Turditani. M. Varro informs us, that the Iberians, the Persians, the Phœnicians, the Celts, and the Carthaginians spread themselves over the whole of Spain; that the name “Lusitania” is derived from the games (lusus) of Father Bacchus, or the fury (lyssa [The Greek Λύσσα, “frantic rage” or “madness.” The etymologies here suggested are puerile in the extreme.]) of his frantic attendants, and that Pan [Plutarch, quoting from the Twelfth Book of the Iberica of Sosthenes, tells us that, “After Bacchus had conquered Iberia [the present Spain], he left Pan to act as his deputy, and he changed its name and called the country Pania, after himself, which afterwards became corrupted into Spania.”] was the governor of the whole of it. But the traditions respecting Hercules [He alludes to the expedition of Hercules into Spain, of which Diodorus Siculus makes mention; also his courtship of the nymph Pyrene, the daughter of Bebryx, who was buried by him on the Pyrenæan mountains, which thence derived their name.] and Pyrene, as well as Saturn, I conceive to be fabulous in the highest degree.

The Bætis does not rise, as some writers have asserted, near the town of Mentisa [It is unknown where this town was situate; Hardouin and D’Anville think it was on the site of the present village of San Thome, once an episcopal see, now removed to Jaen. The people of Mentisa, mentioned in c., were probably inhabitants of a different place. D’Anville in his map has two Mentisas, one ‘Oretana,’ the other ‘Bastitana.’], in the province of Tarraco, but in the Tugiensian Forest [According to D’Anville, the place now called Toia.]; and near it rises the river Tader [Now the Segura.], which waters the territory of Carthage [‘Nova’ or ‘New’ Carthage, so called from having been originally founded by a colony of Carthaginians B.C. 242. It was situate a little to the west of the Saturni Promontorium, or Promontory of Palos. It was taken by Scipio Africanus the elder B.C. 210.]. At Ilorcum [The present Lorca.] it turns away from the Funeral Pile [This place is even now called by the inhabitants Sepulcro de Scipion. Cneius Cornelius Scipio Calvus, after the defeat of his brother P. Cornelius Scipio, in the year B.C. 211, by the forces of Asdrubal and Mago, fled to a tower at this spot, which was set fire to by the troops of Asdrubal, and he perished in the flames.] of Scipio; then taking a sweep to the left, it falls into the Atlantic Ocean, giving its name to this province: at its source it is but small, though during its course it receives many other streams, which it deprives as well of their waters as their renown. It first enters Bætica in Ossigitania [So called from the town of Ossigi afterwards mentioned.], and glides gently, with a smooth current, past many towns situate on either side of its banks.

Between this river and the sea-shore the most celebrated places inland are Segida [It is unknown where this place stood; Medina Sidonia has been suggested.], also surnamed Augurina; Julia [Probably the present Fuentes del Rey, between Andujar and Jaen, according to Pinet.], called Fidentia; Urgao [D’Anville suggests that this is the present Arjona; but more probably it was the village of Arjonilla, two leagues south of Andujar. Gruter has an inscription found here, “ MUNIC. ALBENSE URGANON.”] or Alba, Ebora [There were five cities of this name in Spain. Hardouin thinks that this is the modern Alcala la Real, between Granada and Cordova.] or Cerealis, Iliberri [Most probably the modern Sierra de Elvira, though some writers have suggested the city of Granada.] or Liberini, Ilipula [Probably near the modern Montilla. Hardouin takes it to be the present Granada.] or Laus, Artigi [Poinsinet thinks that this is the present Ecija, but other writers take it to be Alhama, between Granada and Malaga.] or Julienses, Vesci [Perhaps the present Archidona. Some writers have suggested the modern Faventia and Velez.] or Faventia, Singili [Probably near the present Puente de Don Gonzalo, on the banks of the Rio Genil.], Attegua [Probably near Aguilar on the river Cabra; or else the present Teba, between Osuna and Antequera.], Arialdunum, Agla Minor [Agla the Less.], Bæbro [Probably the present Cabra. The sites of the two preceding towns are not known.], Castra Vinaria [“The Encampment in the Vineyards.” Probably this was the same as the Castra Postumiana mentioned by Hirtius in his Book on the Spanish War as being four miles from Attegua. It appears to be the present Castro, or Castro el Rio, situate on the banks of the river Guadajoz.], Cisimbrium [In some readings “Episibrium.” Probably the present Espeja.], Hippo Nova or New Hippo [Its present site is unknown.], Ilurco [According to D’Anville, the present Puente de Pinos, six leagues north of Granada. Others take it to be Illora, south of Alcala la Real.], Osca [The present Huesca, according to Hardouin; more probably, however, Huector, on the banks of the river Genil.], Escua [Perhaps Escusar, five leagues from Granada. But according to some it is the same as Truelo or Eruelo.], Sucubo [Called Ucubis by Hirtius. Morales suggests that it is Sierra la Ronda, but Pinet says Stoponda.], Nuditanum, Old Tuati [The sites of this and the preceding place are unknown.]; all which towns are in that part of Bastitania which extends towards the sea, but in the jurisdiction [In relation to the ‘conventus juridicus,’ we may here observe that under the Roman sway, in order to facilitate the administration of justice, a province was divided into a number of districts or circuits, each of which was so called, as also ‘forum’ or ‘jurisdictio’. At certain times of the year fixed by the proconsul or chief magistrate, the people assembled in the chief town of the district (whence the name ‘conventus’), upon which judges were selected to try the causes of litigant parties.] of Corduba. In the neighbourhood of the river itself is Ossigi [Probably near the town at the present day called Espelui. Strabo, in Book iii., tells us that Laconian institutions and customs were prevalent in some parts of Spain.], also surnamed Laconicum, Iliturgi [This place was ravaged by fire and levelled with the ground by the troops of Scipio, in consequence of the vigorous defence they had made, and the losses they had caused to the Roman army. It probably stood about four miles from the present city of Baeza.] or Forum Julium, Ipasturgi [The sites of this place and the next are unknown.] or Triumphale, Setia, and, fourteen miles inland, Obulco [Most probably the present town of Porcuna. Ubeda or Ubedos has also been suggested.], which is also called Pontificense.

Next to these comes Epora [The present town of Montoro.], a federate town, Sacili [Now Alcoorrucen, near Perabad.] Martialium, and Onoba [Ansart suggests that the reading is not Sacili of the Martiales, but Onoba of the Martiales, to distinguish it from Onoba Æstuaria, previously mentioned. It is not improbable that the place was so called from the Martian or Martial legion having originally colonized it. The site of Onoba is unknown.]. On the right bank is Corduba, a Roman colony, surnamed Patricia [Cordova was so called from the great number of patricians, who were among the original colonists, when it was founded by Marcellus. To the present day it is noted for the pride of its nobles. The Great Captain Gonzalo de Cordova used to say, that “other towns might be better to live in, but there was none better to be born in.” It was the birth-place of Lucan and the two Senecas.]; here the Bætis first becomes navigable. There are also the towns of Carbula and Detunda [The site of these two places is unknown at the present day.], and the river Singulis [Now called by the similar name of Genil or Xenil.], which falls into the Bætis on the same side.

The towns in the jurisdiction of Hispalis are the following: Celti, Arua [Perhaps the present Alcolea.], Canama [Perhaps the Cantillana of the present day: there is, however, the greatest uncertainty as to the sites of these places.], Evia, Ilipa [According to Hardouin, the modern city of Penaflor: D’Anville places it about two leagues thence, and near the city of Lora.], surnamed Illa, and Italica [Now Sevilla la Vieja, or Old Seville; called by the lower classes Santi-pone.]. On the left of the river is the colony of Hispalis [Now Seville. This colony was founded by Julius Cæsar, and also bore the name of Julia Romula.] named Romuliensis, and, on the opposite side [Or north side of the river.], the town of Osset [Probably on the site of the present Alcala del Rio.], surnamed Julia Constantia, Vergentum, or Julî Genius [‘The [good] genius of Julius,’ probably meaning Cæsar. Nothing seems to be known of its site.], Orippo, Caura [Caura may be the present Coria, a town three leagues from Seville.], Siarum, and the river Menoba [Probably the Rio Guadalete.], which enters the Bætis on its right bank. Between the æstuaries of the Bætis lie the towns of Nebrissa [Either the present Sebrija, or in the vicinity of the city of San Lucar.], surnamed Veneria, and of Colobona [Probably the present Bonania.]. The colonies are, Asta [Probably between Trebujena and the city of Xeres. It was the usual place of meeting for the people of the territory of Gades; and its importance may be judged from its appellation ‘Regia’ or ‘royal,’ and its numerous coins. Its ruins are still to be seen on a hill there.], which is also called Regia, and, more inland, that of Asido [It is not improbable that this was the present city of Xeres. Some geographers however take it to be that of Medina Sidonia, and look upon Xeres as the site of the ancient Asta.], surnamed Cæsariana.

The river Singulis, discharging itself into the Bætis at the place already mentioned, washes the colony of Astigi [Now Ecija. It stood on the plain of the Bætis, some distance south of the river, on its tributary the Singulis or Xenil.], surnamed Augusta Firma, at which place it becomes navigable. The other colonies in this jurisdiction which are exempt from tribute are Tucci, surnamed Augusta Gemella [The site of this place is unknown. It probably obtained its name from being a colony of one of the legions, the 7th, 10th, 13th or 14th; which were called ‘geminæ’ or ‘gemellæ,’ from being composed of the men of two legions originally.], Itucci called Virtus Julia [“The Valour of Julius.” Sanson places it not far from Miragenil.], Attubi or Claritas Julia [“The Fame of Julius.” Perhaps the present Olivera, or else Teba, six leagues to the south of Estepa.], Urso [The present city of Ossuna. “Genua Urbanorum” would seem to mean “the knees of the citizens.” Though all the MSS. agree in this reading, it probably is an error for “gemina Urbanorum,” and it may have been a colony of one of the legions called ‘geminæ’ or ‘gemellæ,’ as previously mentioned. The other part of its appellation may possibly have originated in the fact of its first inhabitants being all natives of the city of Rome.] or Genua Urbanorum; and among them in former times Munda [The use of the word fuit, ‘was,’ implies that the place had been destroyed. Cneius Pompeius, the eldest son of Pompey the Great, was defeated at Munda, in the year B.C. 45, and the town destroyed. Pompey escaped from the battle, but was taken a short time after and put to death. The site of the ancient town is very generally supposed to be the modern village of Monda, S.W. of Malaga, and about three leagues from the sea. It is more probable however that it was in the vicinity of Cordova, and there are ruins of ancient walls and towers between Martos, Alcandete, Espejo and Baena, which are supposed to denote its site.], which was taken with the son of Pompey. The free towns are Old Astigi [Now Alameda; eight leagues from the other Astiji or Ecija.] and Ostippo [Now Estepa, six leagues from Ecija.]; the tributary towns are Callet, Callecula, Castra Gemina, the Lesser Ilipula, Merucra, Sacrana, Obulcula [Perhaps Mancloua, between the towns of Ecija and Carmona; the sites of all the other places here mentioned appear to be quite unknown.], and Oningis. As you move away from the sea-coast, near where the river Menoba is navigable, you find, at no great distance, the Alontigiceli and the Alostigi [Sanson supposes the Alostigi to have inhabited the territory near Almagia, between Malaga and Antiqueira.].

The country which extends from the Bætis to the river Anas, beyond the districts already described, is called Bæturia, and is divided into two parts and the same number of nations; the Celtici [The Celtici are supposed to have inhabited the country between the Guadiana and Guadalquivir, the eastern parts of Alentejo and the west of Estremadura, as far as the city of Badajoz.], who border upon Lusitania, in the jurisdiction of Hispalis, and the Turduli, who dwell on the verge [Probably part of Estremadura, and the vicinity of Badajoz in an easterly direction.] of Lusitania and Tarraconensis, and are under the protection of the laws of Corduba. It is evident that the Celtici have sprung from the Celtiberi, and have come from Lusitania, from their religious rites, their language, and the names of their towns, which in Bætica are distinguished by the following epithets [The exact meaning of this passage is somewhat obscure, but he probably means to say that the Celtici have an identity of sacred rites, language, and names of towns with the Celtiberians; though it had become the usage in Bætica more generally to distinguish the towns by their Roman names.], which have been given to them. Seria has received the surname of Fama Julia [“The Fame of Julius.” Its site is not known.], Nertobriga that of Concordia Julia [“The Concord of Julius.” Probably the same as the modern Valera la Vega, near Frejenal.], Segida that of Restituta Julia [Probably meaning “Restored by Julius.” Nothing is known of its site.], and Contributa [According to an authority quoted by Hardouin, this may possibly be Medina de las Torres.] that of Julia. What is now Curiga was formerly Ucultuniacum, Constantia Julia [Probably Constantina in Andalusia, to the north of Penaflor.] was Laconimurgis, the present Fortunales were the Tereses [The tribe or nation of the Tereses are supposed to have dwelt in the vicinity of the modern San Nicolo del Puerto.], and the Emanici were the Callenses [Calentum was their town; probably the present Cazalla near Alaniz. This place will be found mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxv. c. 14.]. Besides these, there are in Celtica the towns of Acinippo [The ruins two leagues north of Ronda la Vieja are supposed to be those of this place. There are the remains of an aqueduct and theatre, and numerous coins are found here.], Arunda [Probably the present Ronda la Vieja.], Aruci [Identified by inscriptions with the present Aroche. The sites of several of the following places are unknown.], Turobriga, Lastigi, Salpesa, Sæpone, and Serippo.

The other Bæturia, which we have mentioned, is inhabited by the Turduli, and, in the jurisdiction of Corduba, has some towns which are by no means inconsiderable; Arsa [The Azuaga of modern times; but, according to Hardouin, Argallen.], Mellaria [According to Hardouin this was on the site of the modern Fuente de la Ovejuna, fourteen leagues from Cordova.], Mirobriga [This has been identified by inscriptions with the modern Villa de Capilla.], and Sisapo [According to Hardouin, the modern Almaden de la Plata.], in the district of Osintias.

To the jurisdiction of Gades belongs Regina, with Roman citizens; and Læpia, Ulia [Probably the same as the modern Monte Major.], Carisa [The ruins of this place are probably those seen at Carixa, near Bornos, in the vicinity of Seville.] surnamed Aurelia, Urgia [According to Hardouin, the same as the modern Las Cabezas, not far from Lebrija.] or Castrum Julium, likewise called Cæsaris Salutariensis, all of which enjoy the Latian rights. The tributary towns are Besaro, Belippo [The sites of these two towns are unknown. Bæsippo, Barbesula and Callet have been already mentioned.], Barbesula, Lacippo, Bæsippo, Callet, Cappacum, Oleastro, Ituci, Brana, Lacibi, Saguntia [The ruins of Saguntia are to be seen between Arcos and Xeres della Frontera, on the river Guadalete; they bear their ancient name under the form of Cigonza. Mela, B. iii. c., says that Oleastro was a grove near the Bay of Cadiz. Brana was probably the same place that is mentioned by Ptolemy under the name of Urbona.], and Audorisæ.

M. Agrippa has also stated the whole length of this province to be 475 miles [We may here mention for the more correct information of the reader that the Roman mile consisted of 1000 paces, each pace being five English feet. Hence its length was 1618 English yards (taking the Roman foot at 11·6496 English inches), or 142 yards less than the English statute mile.], and its breadth 257; but this was at a time when its boundaries extended to Carthage [Nova Carthago, or New Carthage.], a circumstance which has often caused great errors in calculations; which are generally the result either of changes effected in the limits of provinces, or of the fact that in the reckoning of distances the length of the miles has been arbitrarily increased or diminished. In some parts too the sea has been long making encroachments upon the land, and in others again the shores have advanced; while the course of rivers in this place has become more serpentine, in that more direct. And then, besides, some writers begin their measurements at one place, and some at another, and so proceed in different directions; and hence the result is, that no two accounts agree.

(2.) At the present day the length of Bætica, from the town of Castulo [Now Cazlona, on the confines of New Castile and the kingdom of Granada. It was a place of great importance, and the chief town of the Oretani. Himilce, the rich wife of Hannibal, was a native of this place.], on its frontier, to Gades is 250 miles, and from Murci, which lies on the sea-coast, twenty-five miles more. The breadth, measured from the coast of Carteia, is 234 miles. Who is there that can entertain the belief that Agrippa, a man of such extraordinary diligence, and one who bestowed so much care on his subject, when he proposed to place before the eyes of the world a survey of that world, could be guilty of such a mistake as this, and that too when seconded by the late emperor the divine Augustus? For it was that emperor who completed the Portico [This was the ‘porticus Octaviæ,’ which, having been commenced by his sister Octavia, the wife of Marcellus and Antony, was completed by Augustus. It lay between the Circus Flaminius and the Theatre of Marcellus, occupying the site of the former portico, which had been built by Q. Cæcilius Metellus, and enclosing the two temples of Juno and of Jupiter Stator. It contained a public library, in which the Senate often met, and it was in this probably that the map or plan, mentioned by Pliny, was deposited. It also contained a great number of statues, paintings, and other works of art, which, with the library, were destroyed by fire in the reign of Titus.] which had been begun by his sister, and in which the survey was to be kept, in conformity with the plan and descriptions of M. Agrippa.