Chaps. 77-90.

Chap. 77. (34.)—The Laying Out of Lands According to the Points of the Wind.

We have already stated [In the last Chapter.] that the umbilicus should be described in the middle of the line. Let another line be drawn transversely through the middle of it, and it will be found to run from due east to due west; a trench cut through the land in accordance with this line is known by the name of “decumanus.” Two other lines must then be traced obliquely across them in the form of the letter X, in such a way as to run exactly from right and left of the northern point to left and right of the southern one. All these lines must pass through the centre of the umbilicus, and all must be of corresponding length, and at equal distances. This method should always be adopted in laying out land; or if it should be found necessary to employ it frequently, a plan [Very similar to our compass, but describing only eight points of the wind, instead of thirty-two.] of it may be made in wood, sticks of equal length being fixed upon the surface of a small tambour, [“Tympanum,” a drum, similar in shape to our tambourines or else kettle-drums.] but perfectly round. In the method which I am here explaining, it is necessary to point out one precaution that must always be observed by those who are unacquainted with the subject. The point that must be verified first of all is the south, as that is always the same; but the sun, it must be remembered, rises every day at a point in the heavens different to that of his rising on the day before, so that the east must never be taken as the basis for tracing the lines.

Having now ascertained the various points of the heavens, the extremity of the line that is nearest to the north, but lying to the east of it, will indicate the solstitial rising, or, in other words, the rising of the sun on the longest day, as also the point from which the wind Aquilo [See B. ii. c. 46.] blows, known to the Greeks by the name of Boreas. You should plant all trees and vines facing this point, but take care never to plough, or sow corn, or plant in seed plots, while this wind is blowing, for it has the effect of drying up and blasting the roots of the trees while being transplanted. Be taught in time—one thing is good for grown trees, another for them while they are but young. Nor have I forgotten the fact, that it is at this point of the heavens that the Greeks place the wind, to which they give the name of Cæcias; Aristotle, a man of most extensive learning, who has assigned to Cæcias this position, explains that it is in consequence of the convexity of the earth, that Aquilo blows in an opposite direction to the wind called Africus.

The agriculturist, however, has nothing to fear from Aquilo, in respect to the operations before mentioned, all the year through; for this wind is softened by the sun in the middle of the summer, and, changing its name, is known by that of Etesias. [Or the “summer” wind.] When you feel the cold, then, be on your guard; for, whatever the noxious effects that are attributed to Aquilo, the more sensibly will they be felt when the wind blows from due north. In Asia, Greece, Spain, the coasts of Italy, Campania, and Apulia, the trees that support the vines, as well as the vines themselves, should have an aspect towards the north-east. If you wish to have male produce, let the flock feed in such a way, that this wind may have the opportunity of fecundating the male, whose office it is to fecundate the females. The wind Africus, known to the Greeks by the name of Libs, blows from the south-west, the opposite point to Aquilo; when animals, after coupling, turn their heads towards this quarter, [Africus, or south-west.] you may be sure that female produce has been conceived.

The third [Or, according to our mode of expression, the “second,” or “next but one.”] line from the north, which we have drawn transversely through the shadow, and called by the name of “decumanus,” will point due east, and from this quarter the wind Subsolanus blows, by the Greeks called Apeliotes. It is to this point that, in healthy localities, farm-houses and vineyards are made to look. This wind is accompanied with soft, gentle showers; Favonius, however, the wind that blows from due west, the opposite quarter to it, is of a drier nature; by the Greeks it is known as Zephyrus. Cato has recommended that olive-yards should look due west. It is this wind that begins the spring, and opens the earth; it is moderately cool, but healthy. As soon as it begins to prevail, it indicates that the time has arrived for pruning the vine, weeding the corn, planting trees, grafting fruit-trees, and trimming the olive; for its breezes are productive of the most nutritious effects.

The fourth [Or, as we say, the “third.”] line from the north, and the one that lies nearest the south on the eastern side, will indicate the point of the sun’s rising at the winter solstice, and the wind Volturnus, known by the name of Eurus to the Greeks. This wind is warm and dry, and beehives and vineyards, in the climates of Italy and the Gallic provinces, should face this quarter. Directly opposite to Volturnus, the wind Corus blows; it indicates the point of the sun’s setting at the summer solstice, and lies on the western side next to the north. By the Greeks it is called Argestes, and is one of the very coldest of the winds, which, in fact, is the case with all the winds that blow from the north; this wind, too, brings hailstorms with it, for which reason it is necessary to be on our guard against it no less than the north. If Volturnus begins to blow from a clear quarter of the heavens, it will not last till night; but if it is Subsolanus, it will prevail for the greater part of the night. Whatever the wind that may happen to be blowing, if it is accompanied by heat, it will be sure to last for several days. The earth announces the approach of Aquilo, by drying on a sudden, while on the approach of Auster, the surface becomes moist without any apparent cause.

Chap. 78. (35.)—Prognostics Derived from the Sun.

Having now explained the theory of the winds, it seems to me the best plan, in order to avoid any repetition, to pass on to the other signs and prognostics that are indicative of a change of weather. I find, too, that this is a kind of knowledge that greatly interested Virgil, [Georg. i. 313, et seq. “Sæpe ego, quum flavis messorem induceret arvis Agricola, et fragili jam stringeret hordea culmo, omnia ventorum concurrere prœlia vidi.”] for he mentions the fact, that during the harvest even, he has often seen the winds engage in a combat that was absolutely ruinous to the improvident agriculturist. There is a tradition, too, to the effect that Democritus, already mentioned, when his brother Damasus was getting in his harvest in extremely hot weather, entreated him to leave the rest of the crop, and house with all haste that which had been cut; and it was only within a very few hours that his prediction was verified by a most violent storm. On the other hand, it is particularly recommended never to plant reeds except when rain is impending, and only to sow corn just before a shower; we shall therefore briefly touch upon the prognostics of this description, making enquiry more particularly into those among them that have been found the most useful.

In the first place, then, we will consider those prognostics of the weather which are derived from the sun. [See the Treatise of Theophrastus on the Prognostics of the Weather.] If the sun is bright at its rising, and not burning hot, it is indicative of fine weather, but if pale, it announces wintry weather accompanied with hail. If the sun is bright and clear when it sets, and if it rises with a similar appearance, the more assured of fine weather may we feel ourselves. If it is hidden in clouds at its rising, it is indicative of rain, and of wind, when the clouds are of a reddish colour just before sunrise; if black clouds are intermingled with the red ones, they betoken rain as well. When the sun’s rays at its rising or setting appear to unite, rainy weather may be looked for. When the clouds are red at sunset, they give promise [This, Fée observes, is confirmed by experience. Aratus, as translated by Avienus, states to a similar effect.] of a fine day on the morrow; but if, at the sun’s rising, the clouds are dispersed in various quarters, some to the south, and some to the north-east, even though the heavens in the vicinity of the sun may be bright, they are significant of rain and wind. If at the sun’s rising or setting, its rays appear contracted, they announce the approach of a shower. If it rains at sunset, or if the sun’s rays attract the clouds towards them, it is portentous of stormy weather on the following day. When the sun, at its rising, does not emit vivid rays, although there are no clouds surrounding it, rain may be expected. If before sunrise the clouds collect into dense masses, they are portentous of a violent storm; but if they are repelled from the east and travel westward, they indicate fine weather. When clouds are seen surrounding the face of the sun, the less the light they leave, the more violent the tempest will be: but if they form a double circle round the sun, the storm will be a dreadful one. If this takes place at sunrise or sunset, and the clouds assume a red hue, the approach of a most violent storm is announced: and if the clouds hang over the face of the sun without surrounding it, they presage wind from the quarter from which they are drifting, and rain as well, if they come from the south.

If, at its rising, the sun is surrounded with a circle, wind may be looked for in the quarter in which the circle breaks; but if it disappears equally throughout, it is indicative of fine weather. If the sun at its rising throws out its rays afar through the clouds, and the middle of its disk is clear, there will be rain; and if its rays are seen before it rises, both rain and wind as well. If a white circle is seen round the sun at its setting, there will be a slight storm in the night; but if there is a mist around it, the storm will be more violent. If the sun is pale at sunset, there will be wind, and if there is a dark circle round it, high winds will arise in the quarter in which the circle breaks.

Chap. 79.—Prognostics Derived from the Moon.

The prognostics derived from the moon, assert their right to occupy our notice in the second place. In Egypt, attention is paid, more particularly, to the fourth day of the moon. If, when the moon rises, she shines with a pure bright light, it is generally supposed that we shall have fine weather; but if she is red, there will be wind, and if of a swarthy [So Virgil, Georg. i. 427.] hue, rain. If upon the fifth day of the moon her horns are obtuse, they are always indicative of rain, but if sharp and erect, of wind, and this on the fourth day of the moon more particularly. If her northern horn is pointed and erect, it portends wind; and if it is the lower horn that presents this appearance, the wind will be from the south; if both of them are erect, there will be high winds in the night. If upon the fourth day of the moon she is surrounded by a red circle, it is portentous of wind and rain.

In Varro we find it stated to the following effect:—“If, at the fourth day of the moon, her horns are erect, there will be great storms at sea, unless, indeed, she has a circlet [Coronam.] around her, and that circlet unblemished; for by that sign we are informed that there will be no stormy weather before full moon. If, at the full moon, one half of her disk is clear, it is indicative of fine weather, but if it is red, of wind, and if black, of rain. If a darkness comes over the face of the moon, covered with clouds, in whatever quarter it breaks, from that quarter wind may be expected. If a twofold circle surrounds the moon, the storm will be more violent, and even more so still, if there are three circles, or if they are black, broken, and disjointed. If the new moon at her rising has the upper horn obscured, there will be a prevalence of rainy weather, when she is on the wane; but if it is the lower horn that is obscured, there will be rain before full moon; if, again, the moon is darkened in the middle of her disk, there will be rain when she is at full. If the moon, when full, has a circle round her, it indicates wind from the quarter in the circle which is the brightest; but if at her rising the horns are obtuse, they are portentous of a frightful tempest. If, when the west wind prevails, the moon does not make her appearance before her fourth day, there will be a prevalence of stormy weather throughout the month. If on the sixteenth day the moon has a bright, flaming appearance, it is a presage of violent tempests.”

There are eight different epochs of the moon, or periods at which she makes certain angles of incidence with the sun, and most persons only notice the prognostics derived from the moon, according to the places which they occupy between these angles. The periods of these angles are the third day, the seventh, the eleventh, the fifteenth, the nineteenth, the twenty-third, the twenty-seventh, and that of the conjunction.

Chap. 80.—Prognostics Derived from the Stars.

In the third rank must be placed the prognostics derived from the stars. These bodies are sometimes to be seen shooting to and fro; [See B. ii. c. 6 and c. 36.] when this happens, winds immediately ensue, in that part of the heavens in which the presage has been afforded. When the heavens are equally bright throughout their whole expanse, at the periods previously mentioned, [In c. 59 of this Book.] the ensuing autumn will be fine and cool. If the spring and summer have passed not without some rain, the autumn will be fine and settled, [“Densum.” Fée says that this is in general confirmed by experience.] and there will be but little wind: when the autumn is fine, it makes a windy winter. When the brightness of the stars is suddenly obscured, though without [This results, Fée says, from the presence of thin, aqueous vapours, which portend a change in the atmosphere.] clouds or fog, violent tempests may be expected. If numerous stars are seen to shoot, [Fée attributes this phænomenon to hydrosulphuric gas, ignited in the air by an electric spark. The notion that these meteors are stars, was prevalent to a very recent period.] leaving a white track behind them, they presage wind from that quarter. [To which they proceed.] If they follow in quick succession from the same quarter, the wind will blow steadily, but if from various quarters of the heavens, the wind will shift in sudden gusts and squalls. If circles are seen to surround any of the planets, there will be rain. [This, Fée says, is confirmed by experience.] In the constellation of Cancer, there are two small stars to be seen, known as the Aselli, [Or “Little Asses.”] the small space that lies between them being occupied by a cloudy appearance, which is known as the Manger; [Præsepia.] when this cloud is not visible in a clear sky, it is a presage of a violent storm. If a fog conceals from our view the one of these stars which lies to the north-east, there will be high winds from the south; but if it is the star which lies to the south that is so obscured, then the wind will be from the north-east. The rainbow, when double, indicates the approach [This, as Fée remarks, is consistent with experience.] of rain; but if seen after rain, it gives promise, though by no means a certain one, of fine weather. Circular clouds around some of the stars are indicative of rain.

Chap. 81.—Prognostics Derived from Thunder.

When, in summer, there is more thunder than lightning, wind may be expected from that quarter; but if, on the other hand, there is not so much thunder as lightning, there will be a fall of rain. When it lightens in a clear sky, there will be rain, and if there is thunder as well, stormy weather; but if it lightens from all four quarters of the heavens, there will be a dreadful tempest. When it lightens from the north-east only, it portends rain on the following day; but when from the north, wind may be expected from that quarter. When it lightens on a clear night from the south, the west, or the north-west, there will be wind and rain from those quarters. Thunder [This, Fée remarks, appears to be consistent with general experience.] in the morning is indicative of wind, and at midday of rain.

Chap. 82.—Prognostics Derived from Clouds.

When clouds are seen moving in a clear sky, wind may be expected in the quarter from which they proceed; but if they accumulate in one spot, as they approach the sun they will disperse. If the clouds are dispersed by a north-east wind, it is a presage of high winds, but if by a wind from the south, of rain. If at sunset the clouds cover the heavens on either side of the sun, they are indicative of tempest; if they are black and lowering in the east, they threaten rain in the night, but if in the west, on the following day. If the clouds spread in large numbers from the east, like fleeces of wool in appearance, they indicate a continuance of rain for the next three days. When the clouds settle on the summits of the mountains, [Theophrastus states to a similar effect, and it is confirmed by the experience of those who live in mountainous countries.] there will be stormy weather; but if the clouds clear away, it will be fine. When the clouds are white and lowering, a hailstorm, generally known as a “white” [We still hear of the “white squalls” of the Mediterranean.] tempest, is close at hand. An isolated cloud, however small, [“‘Behold, there ariseth a little cloud out of the sea, like a man’s hand.’——And it came to pass in the meanwhile, that the heaven was black with clouds and wind, and there was a great rain.”—1 Kings, xviii. 44, 45.] though seen in a clear sky, announces wind and storm.

Chap. 83.—Prognostics Derived from Mists.

Mists descending from the summits of mountains, or from the heavens, or settling in the vallies, [The truth of this, Fée says, he has personally experienced in the vallies of the Alps.] give promise of fine weather.

Chap. 84.—Prognostics Derived from Fire Kindled by Man.

Next to these are the prognostics that are derived from fire kindled upon the earth. [Terreni ignes.] If the flames are pallid, and emit a murmuring noise, they are considered to presage stormy weather; and fungi upon the burning wick of the lamp are a sign of rain. [This, and the other phænomena here mentioned, result, as Fée says, from the hygrometric state of the air. Virgil mentions this appearance on the wick of the lamp, Georg. i. 392.] If the flame is spiral and flickering, it is an indication of wind, and the same is the case when the lamp goes out of itself, or is lighted with difficulty. So, too, if the snuff hangs down, and sparks gather upon it, or if the burning coals adhere [Fée thinks that this indicates fine weather rather than rain, as showing a pure state of the atmosphere.] to vessels taken from off the fire, or if the fire, when covered up, sends out hot embers or emits sparks, or if the cinders gather into a mass upon the hearth, or the coals burn bright and glowing.

Chap. 85.—Prognostics Derived from Water.

There are certain prognostics, too, that may be derived from water. If, when the sea is calm, the water ripples in the harbour, with a hollow, murmuring noise, it is a sign of wind, and if in winter, of rain as well. If the coasts and shores re-echo while the sea is calm, a violent tempest may be expected; and the same when the sea, though calm, is heard to roar, or throws up foam and bubbling spray. If sea pulmones [Sea “lungs.” See B. ix. c. 71.] are to be seen floating on the surface, they are portentous of stormy weather for many days to come. Very frequently, too, the sea is seen to swell in silence, and more so than when ruffled by an ordinary breeze; this is an indication that the winds are at work within its bosom already.

Chap. 86.—Prognostics Derived from Tempests Themselves.

The reverberations, too, of the mountains, and the roaring of the forests, are indicative of certain phænomena; and the same is the case when the leaves are seen to quiver, [Ludentia.] without a breath of wind, the downy filaments of the poplar or thorn to float in the air, and feathers to skim along the surface of the water. [Virgil mentions these indications, Georg. i. 368-9.] In champaign countries, the storm gives notice of its approach by that peculiar muttering [“Suus fragor.” The winds, Fée remarks, however violent they may be, make no noise unless they meet with an obstacle which arrests their onward progress.] which precedes it; while the murmuring that is heard in the heavens affords us no doubtful presage of what is to come.

Chap. 87.—Prognostics Derived from Aquatic Animals, and Birds.

The animals, too, afford us certain presages; dolphins, for instance, sporting in a calm sea, announce wind in the quarter from which they make their appearance. [Theophrastus, Cicero, and Plutarch state to a similar effect; and it is corroborated by the experience of most mariners.] When they throw up the water in a billowy sea, they announce the approach of a calm. The loligo, [The ink-fish; Sepia loligo of Linnæus. See B. ix. c. 21.] springing out of the water, shell-fish adhering to various objects, sea-urchins fastening by their stickles upon the sand, or else burrowing in it, are so many indications of stormy weather: the same, too, when frogs [Virgil says the same, Georg. i. 378.] croak more than usual, or coots [“Fulicæ.” See B. x. c. 61, and B. xi. c. 44.] make a chattering in the morning. Divers, too, and ducks, when they clean their feathers with the bill, announce high winds; which is the case also when the aquatic birds unite in flocks, cranes make for the interior, and divers [Virgil says the same of the diver, or didapper, Georg. i. 361; and Lucan Pharsalia, v. 553.] and sea-mews forsake the sea or the creeks. Cranes when they fly aloft in silence announce fine weather, and so does the owlet, [Both Theophrastus and Ælian mention this.] when it screeches during a shower; but if it is heard in fine weather, it presages a storm. Ravens, too, when they croak with a sort of gurgling noise and shake their feathers, give warning of the approach of wind, if their note is continuous: but if, on the other hand, it is smothered, and only heard at broken intervals, we may expect rain, accompanied with high winds. Jackdaws, when they return late from feeding, give notice of stormy weather, and the same with the white birds, [It is not known what bird is here alluded to, but Fée is probably right in suggesting a sort of sea-mew, or gull.] when they unite in flocks, and the land birds, when they descend with cries to the water and besprinkle themselves, the crow more particularly. The swallow, [This is still considered a prognostic of rain. Fée says that the swallow descends thus near to the surface to catch the insects on the wing which are now disabled from rising by the hygrometric state of the atmosphere.] too, when it skims along the surface of the water so near as to ripple it every now and then with its wings, and the birds that dwell in the trees, when they hide themselves in their nests, afford similar indications; geese, too, when they set up a continuous gabbling, [This is confirmed by experience.] at an unusual time, and the heron, [On the contrary, Lucan says (Pharsalia, B. v. l. 549), that on the approach of rain, the heron soars in the upper regions of the air; and Virgil says the same, Georg. i. 364.] when it stands moping in the middle of the sands.

Chap. 88.—Prognostics Derived from Quadrupeds.

Nor, indeed, is it surprising that the aquatic birds, or any birds, in fact, should have a perception of the impending changes of the atmosphere. Sheep, however, when they skip and frisk with their clumsy gambols, [Indecorâ lasciviâ.] afford us similar prognostics; oxen, when they snuff upwards towards the sky, and lick [Fée suggests that they probably do this to diminish the electric fluid with which the air is charged.] themselves against the hair; unclean swine, when they tear to pieces the trusses of hay that are put for other animals; [Alienos sibi manipulos.] bees, when, contrary to their natural habits of industry, they keep close within the hive; ants, when they hurry to and fro, or are seen carrying forth their eggs; and earthworms, [This is confirmed by common experience.] emerging from their holes—all these indicate approaching changes in the weather.

Chap. 89.—Prognostics Derived from Plants.

It is a well-known fact, that trefoil bristles up, and its leaves stand erect, upon the approach of a tempest.

Chap. 90.—Prognostics Derived from Food.

At our repasts, too, and upon our tables, when we see the vessels sweat in which the viands are served, and leave marks upon the side-board, [“Repositoriis.” See B. xix. c., and B. xxx. c. 49.] it is an indication that a dreadful storm is impending.

Summary. —Remarkable facts, narratives, and observations, two thousand and sixty.

Roman authors quoted. —Massurius Sabinus, [See end of B. vii.] Cassius Hemina, [See end of B. xii.] Verrius Flaccus, [See end of B. iii.] L. Piso, [See end of B. ii.] Cornelius Celsus, [See end of B. vii.] Turranius Gracilis, [See end of B. iii.] D. Silanus, [See end of B. xiv.] M. Varro, [See end of B. ii.] Cato the Censor, [See end of B. iii.] Scrofa, [See end of B. xi.] the Sasernæ, [See end of B. x.] father and son, Domitius Calvinus, [See end of B. xi.] Hyginus, [See end of B. iii.] Virgil, [See end of B. vii.] Trogus, [See end of B. vii.] Ovid, [A native of Sulmo, in the country of the Peligni, and one of the greatest poets of the Augustan age. It is most probable that his “Fasti” was extensively consulted by Pliny in the compilation of the present Book. Six Books of the Fasti have come down to us, but the remaining six have perished, if, indeed, they were ever written, which has been doubted by many of the learned.] Græcinus, [See end of B. xiv.] Columella, [See end of B. viii.] Tubero, [See end of B. ii. It is supposed that there were several writers of this name, but it is impossible to say with certainty which of them is the one here referred to. It is probable, however, that it is either L. Ælius Tubero, the friend of Cicero, or else Q. Ælius Tubero, his son, that is alluded to.] L. Tarutius, [L. Tarutius Firmianus, a mathematician and astronomer, and a friend and contemporary of Cicero and M. Varro. At the request of the latter, he took the horoscope of Romulus. It is generally supposed that he was of Etruscan descent.] who wrote in Greek on the Stars, Cæsar [The founder of the imperial dignity at Rome. His Commentaries are the only work written by him that has come down to us. His treatise on the Stars, which Pliny frequently quotes throughout this Book, was probably written under the inspection of the astronomer, Sosigenes.] the Dictator, who wrote upon the Stars, Sergius Paulus, [See end of B. ii.] Sabinus Fabianus, [Nothing is known of this writer. It has been suggested, however, that he may have been the same person as Papirius Fabianus, mentioned at the end of B. ii.] M. Cicero, [See end of B. vii.] Calpurnius Bassus, [See end of B. xvi.] Ateius Capito, [See end of B. iii.] Mamilius Sura, [See end of B x.] Attius, [L. Accius, or Attius, an early Roman tragic poet, and the son of a freedman, born about B.C. 170. His tragedies were chiefly imitations from the Greek. He is highly praised by Cicero. The “Praxidica” here mentioned, is probably the same as the “Pragmatica” spoken of by Aulus Gellius, B. xx. c. 3. Only some fragments of his Tragedies are left.] who wrote the Praxidica.

Foreign authors quoted. —Hesiod, [See end of B. vii.] Theophrastus, [See end of B. iii.] Aristotle, [See end of B. ii.] Democritus, [See end of B. ii.] King Hiero, [See end of B. viii.] King Attalus Philometor, [See end of B. viii.] King Archelaüs, [See end of B. viii.] Archytas, [See end of B. viii.] Xenophon, [See end of B. iv.] Amphilochus [Sec end of B. viii.] of Athens, Anaxipolis [See end of B. ix.] of Thasos, Aristophanes [See end of B. viii.] of Miletus, Apollodorus [See end of B. viii.] of Lemnos, Antigonus [See end of B. viii.] of Cymæ, Agathocles [See end of B. viii.] of Chios, Apollonius [See end of B. viii.] of Pergamus, Aristander [See end of B. viii.] of Athens, Bacchius [See end of B. viii.] of Miletus, Bion [See end of B. vi.] of Soli, Chæreas [See end of B. viii.] of Athens, Chæristus [See end of B. xiv.] of Athens, Diodorus [See end of B. xv.] of Priene, Dion [See end of B. viii.] of Colophon, Epigenes [See end of B. ii.] of Rhodes, Euagon [See end of B. x.] of Thasos, Euphronius [See end of B. viii.] of Athens, Androtiou [See end of B. viii.] who wrote on Agriculture, Æschrion [See end of B. viii.] who wrote on Agriculture, Lysimachus [See end of B. viii.] who wrote on Agriculture, Dionysius [See end of B. xii.] who translated Mago, Diophanes [See end of B. viii.] who made an Epitome from Dionysius, Thales, [Of Miletus, the most ancient of the Greek philosophers, and the founder of the Ionian school of Philosophy. He is said to have written upon the Solstice and the Equinox, and a work on Astronomy, in verse, was also attributed to him. It is, however, more generally believed, that he left no written works behind him, and that those attributed to him were forgeries.] Eudoxus, [See end of B. ii.] Philippus, [An astronomer of Medama, or Medma, in Magna Græcia, and a disciple of Plato. He is said to have written a treatise on the winds, and Plutarch states that he demonstrated the figure of the moon.] Calippus, [An astronomer of Cyzicus, and a friend of Aristotle, whom he assisted in completing the discoveries of Eudoxus. He invented the cycle of seventy-six years, called after him the Calippic.] Dositheus, [Of Colonus, a geometrician, to whom Archimedes dedicated his works on the sphere and cylinder, and on spirals.] Parmeniscus, [A grammarian, who is supposed to have written a commentary on Aratus. Varro, De Ling. Lat. x. 10, speaks of him as making the distinctive characteristics of words to be eight in number.] Meton, [A famous astronomer of Athens, to whom the discovery of the cycle of nineteen years has been attributed.] Criton, [There were several learned men of this name, but it appears impossible to say which of them is the one here alluded to; probably it is either the Pythagorean philosopher of Ægæ, who wrote on Predestination, or else the historian, a native of Pieria in Macedonia. There was also an astronomer of this name, a native of Naxos, and a friend of Eudoxus of Cnidos.] Œnopides, [A famous astronomer, a native of Chios. He is said to have claimed the discovery of the obliquity of the Ecliptic.] Zenon, [Probably Zenon of Elea, one of the most famous philosophers of antiquity. All of his works had perished at a very early period.] Euctemon, [An Athenian astronomer, the friend and assistant of Meton, about 430 B.C.] Harpalus, [An astronomer mentioned by Censorinus, as having corrected the intercalation of Cleostratus. Nothing further appears to be known of him.] Hecatæus, [For Hecatæus of Miletus, see B. iv. For Hecatæus of Abdera, see B. vi.] Anaximander, [See end of B. iv.] Sosigenes, [See end of B. ii.] Hipparchus, [See end of B. ii.] Aratus, [A native of Soli, or else Tarsus, in Cilicia. He was the author of two Greek astronomical poems which have come down to us. He flourished about B.C. 270.] Zoroaster, [Nothing can be said of him with any degree of historical certainty. By the Persians he was called Zerdusht, and was said to have been the founder of the Magian religion. There were several works in Greek bearing his name, but which, no doubt, were forgeries of a later age than that usually assigned to him.] Archibius. [He is mentioned in c. 70 of this Book, as writing a letter to Antiochus, king of Syria; but nothing further seems to be known of him.]